LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



AMATF.UR Fruit Growing. 



A Practical Guide to the Growing of Fruit 
for Flome Use and the Market. 



Written with Special Reference to Colder Climates. 



SAMUEL 1^..' GREEN, 
Professor of Horticulture in the Universitj- of Minnesota. 






::^ro-' 



MINNEAPOLIS : 

Farm, Stoc:: and Home PrnusHiXG Co., 

1894. 




Copyright, 1893. 
By Samuel B. Gkeen. 



INTRODUCTION. 






N my experience as teacher of Horticulture in the School of 
Agriculture of the University of Minnesota I have not been 
able to find a book on fruit growing at all adapted to the 
wants of the students coming under my instruction. In fact, I 
soon found that the material along this line consisted princi- 
pally of papers scattered through reports of the various hor- 
ticultural societies and in the agricultural press, and that these 
were not generally available, nor, indeed, sufficiently condensed 
for my purpose. The peculiar conditions that obtain in this 
section of the country, and which render the works of Eastern 
authorities of little practical value here, made it desirable for 
me to have some practical book on fruit growing that the 
students could study and refer to at their convenience. 

Another reason for presenting this book is that by so doing 
I might answer the many questions relating to the subject 
treated, which have been often referred to me, and which have 
required much time and attention in correspondence. 

The book is written for the beginner and is not offered 
as a complete manual of Horticulture, although it is believed 
to cover all the important points in practical fruit growing. 
But lew varieties are recommended, and only the kinds tiiat 
have been tried for some considerable period and can. be ob- 
tained from the general nurserymen. Untried and little known 
kinds have been purposely avoided, however well they may 
have appeared. It is my earnest wish that new varieties be 
let alone by the amateur in horticulture, and that, instead of 
beginning with novelties in fruits, as is too often the case, he 
will postpone their trial until he has first tried those kinds 
that are known to be desirable. 



iV INTKODUCTION. 

Varieties of many fruits, especially of small fruits, seldom 
last in full vigor for more than a score of years, and often 
after a much less time they are superceded by new and bet- 
ter kinds. There are many novelties in fiuits introduced each 
year, but in my experience not one new variety in ten that is 
offered for sale is worthy of trial. It is my intention to issue 
a supplementary fruit list as often as may seem desirable, and 
lists of fruits recommended in this work may be supplemented 
by reference to the fruit lists of the different horticultural soci- 
eties. 

The Appendix at the end of the volume by Professor J. L. 
Budd, of the Iowa Agricultural CoUege, adds much to the value 
of the list of fruits, and is here included for the benefit of 
planters living in the latitude of Northern Iowa and Illinois 
and Southern Minnesota, and to him my thanks are due for 
this assistance. 

SAMUEL B. GKEEX. 

St. Anthony Park, December 13, isns. 



CHAPTER L 



STRAWBERRIES. 



jgrtHE strawberry is the most important of the small fruits. It is 
^ found growing from the far north to the hot south, and across 
the Continent. There is not a state in this country but has its wild 
strawberries. There are large sections of Minnesota where the 
strawberry produces as heavily as it does anywhere when given 
good cultivation, and there is not a county in the state where it 
cannot be made to yield abundantly. It is easily grown, stands 
transportation moderately well, and is almost universally admired. 
Species.- There are three species of the strawberry common- 
ly met with in cultivation :— 

(1) Fragaria Virginiana, which forms entirely or enters largely 
into the parentage of the varieties that have become widely known 
and esteemed on account of their hardiness and reliability. 

(2) Fragaria grandijlora, the South American strawberry, is 
grown much more extensively in eastern Europe than in this coun- 
try. This variety readily hybridizes with the F. Virginiaua, but in 
a pure state is not sufficiently hardy to withstand successfully our 
hot summers and cold winters. It has very handsome, large fruit, 
but it has not the sprightly quality of our native berry. 

(3) Fragaria vesca, called the Alpine or wood strawberry, is a 
native of Europe and of the northern parts of this country and 
Canada. From this have come the ever-bearing varieties whose 
praises are so often talked of. It will not hybridize with either of 
the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is not sufficient- 
ly productive to warrant its being largely cultivated. The ever- 
bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable. They produce a 
few berries all through the season, but do not produce enough at 
any one time to make their cultivation an object of importance. 
Practically, then, this species is of little account. 

Propagation.— The strawberry is increased by seed, runners 
and plant divisions. The plants do not "come true" from seed, but 
seedlings vary very much in their value for cultivation. Probably 
5 



n STRAWBERRIES. 

not one plant in five thousand seedlings that may be raised will be 
as good as any of the best half doze a varieties now in cultivation, 
but there will be a good many plants out of such a number that 
will be fairly productive of good fruit. It is this variability that 
gives us an opportunity of improving on the kinds now grown. To 
raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should be crushed 
in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as they are "dead 
ripe." The seed and sand should then be sown at once in a some- 
what shaded bed of rich soil. It will come up in a few weeks if 
well cared for. The plants should be transplanted four inches 
apart in another bed as soon as large enough to handle. By winter, 
if carefully attended to, they wiU be of good size and may be moved 
to the fruiting bed in the spring, where they will fruit the follow- 
ing year, that is in two years from ine time the seed was sown. It 
is a very simple process and may be carried on by any careful per- 
son. The raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very 
fascinating line of experimental work on account of the possibility 
that one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value. 

For practical purposes strawberries are increased only by run- 
ners, which most desirable kinds produce in great abundance when 
growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the old plant 
only part of one season, the connection dying the first winter if not 
before. It is common to separate the runners into old plants and 
young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have once 
borne fruit. They can be distinguished by their black roots, and 
should never be used except in emergency as they often fail to 
grow. Plants should never be taken from beds that have fruited. 
The young runners are what should be set out. They have never 
fruited, have white roots, and were formed the season just preced- 
ing the spring they are set. Strawberries should never be grown 
from divisions, unless it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable 
kind. 

Location and Soil.— The crop is generally most satisfactory 
when grown on a northern slope, as it is then not exposed to the 
drying southerly winds, which in exposed locations occasionally so 
dry out the land that the crop is seriously lessened; also as the 
plants start latest on north slopes the blossoms are not liable to be 
injured by the late spring frosts which sometimes cause serious in- 
jury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are very 
successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level land. 
In a general way any land or location that is good enough for a 
crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but strawberries 
should never be planted on sod-land on account of the liability of 
its being infested with cut-worms, or with the white grub, which 
feeds on the roots of the plants. 

Manure and Preparation of the Land.— The strawberry 
is a gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The 
best fertilizer is barn-yard manure that is partially rotted, but it 
should not be plowed in very deep. It is generally best to plow the 



STRAWBERRIES. i 

land deep in autumn, apply the manure in winter or in spring, and 
then plow the manure under very shallow as soon as may be there- 
after. The land should then be thoroughly dragged and smoothed, 
when it is ready for the plants. When so prepared the land has a 
loose surface bed in which to place the plants, while underneath it 
the soil is so firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open 
enough so that the young roots can push into it. 

Time of Planting.— Practically there is only one time to 
plant, and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended to 
plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no 
strawberry bed in the home garden, and there is considerable mois- 
ture in the ground so the plants will live without too much care, 
but in ordinary seasons here the results from setting the plants at 
this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting of 
them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the home 
garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers from some 
bed near by, or if obtained from a distance they should have been 
potted and be well rotted in the pots. The potted plants cost more 
but are much surer to grow than layers. The growers of straw- 
berries for rrofit in this state always plant in the spring. The 
earlier the plants can be set the longer the season for them to grow, 
and the cool, moist weather of early spring seems to favor the for- 
mation of roots, but they may be set as late as the first of June 
with fair prospect of success. However, if the land is very dry at 
planting time it is best not to plant until after a rain, even if wait- 
ing for it may delay the planting considerably. In this climate it 
is poor practice to set out strawberry plants for profit in dry soil 
and try to keep them growing by watering, as so much water and 
attention is required that the operation will be found a losing one. 

If plants are received when the land is very dry it is the cus- 
tom of the best growers to open the bundles, shake out the plants, 
and dip the roots into a clav-loam mud and "heel them in" close to- 
gether, putting a little soil between the plants. When thus treated 
they may be easily watered, and will commence to grow and be 
ready to set out in the field or garden as soon as a favorable time 
offers. If the space where the plants are heeled in is surrounded 
by a board fence, or other windbreak, a few feet high, it will aid 
much in preventing the drying action of the wind. 

Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to look 
white and weak when received, and are almost sure to die if at 
once set in the full sunshine. They should be heeled in and par- 
tially shaded until they assume their normal color. 

Methods of Planting.— There are many methods of plant- 
ing but I will mention only two ways, and they may be modified as 
the good judgment of the planter may suggest. 

Hill, System.- This is especially adapted to the home garden. 
By it the fruit is grown of a larger size than in the matted rows, 
but not so much is produced. It consists in setting the plants at 
about one foot distance in rows two-and-a-half or three feet apart, 



STRAWBERRIES. 



and keeping all the runners cut off. Managed on this plan the 
plants become very large, have many crowns, look neat and pretty, 
and produce a good amount of extra large fruit. The objection to 
it i«5 that it takes three or four times as many plants to set out the 
land as are needed where the matted-row system is followed, and 
the crop is not so large. For these reasons this system is not fol- 
lowed by commercial growers. 

Matted-Row System.— All large growers pursue very nearly 
the following plan: After the land is prepared in the spring it is 
marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one way and two feet the 
other, and the plants are set at the intersections. The horse culti- 
vator is run both ways until the plants commence to make runners 
rapidly (about the middle of July) , when it is run only in the four- 
foot intervals. The runners are then pusbed together forming a 
bed or matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide. 
The ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in 
ten days throughout the grooving season up to the tirst of Septem- 
ber, after which cultivation should cease for the year. Keep the 
soil loose and be sure the bed is free from weeds on the approach of 
winter. For some varieties two feet apart in the row may leave 
larger gaps than thfi runners can fill, but almost any of our com- 
mercial kinds will easily till up even larger vacancies. Such varie- 
ties as the Crescent will easily fill up intervals of three feet in rich 
soil. The runners should stand about six inches apart in the bed 
by the first of September. 

Trimming and Setting the Plants.— The plants when dug 
should have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms 
trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves they 
too should be cut off. All flowers that appear the first year 
should be taken off. If the roots are large they are not readily 
planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inches. 
The way growth starts from these pruned roots is shown in Fig. 1. 
If a great mop of roots is planted in 
a bunch a part of them is very apt to 
rot. Perhaps as good a way as any 
to set the plants is with a spade. 
This requires two persons, generally 
a man and a boy, to do the work rap- 
idly. After the land is marked out 
the man places the spade with the 
hack side away from him, presses it 
about six inches into the moist earth, 
moves it from him and lifts it out. 
The boy takes up a plant, separates 
the roots, and puts them in the hole. 
The man puts the spade in the 
ground about four inches nearer him 
than he had it before and presses ''^ 

the soil against the plant. The boy Fig. 1. Growth of pruned roots. 




STRAWBERRIES. , 9 

finishes the operation by firming the plant in the soil with h is 
hands. As soon as the planting is done the cultivator should be 
started to loosen up the soil. Great care should be taken to keep 
the plants from getting dry when planting them out. 

Winter Protection. — Under whatever system the straw- 
berry may be grown, it is benefited by being protected in winter 
by a mulch of sufBcient thickness to prevent frequent freezing and 
thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cover- 
ing of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust to it. 
This mulch should consist of marsh hay, corn-stalks, straw, boughs, 
or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from weed seeds. 
It should be put on deep enough to cover the plants. Nothing is 
gained by covering very deep. This should be applied after the 
ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a team. In spring it 
should be drawn from over ihe plants into the intervals between 
the plants, where it will act to preserve the moisture during dry 
weather and to keep the fruit clean. 

Avoiding Frosts.— It sometimes happens that the blossoms 
which appear about the middle of May, and are quite susceptible 
to frosts, are seriously injured of cold nights. They may often be 
protected when in this cri ical condition by taking the mulching 
from the rows and throwing it back again on the plants for a few 
days, or until the danger from frost is past. Hay or straw sprink- 
led with coal tar may be burned to windward of the bed of frosty 
nights, and will make dense, heavy clouds of smoke that will afford 
protection. If the winter mulch is left on as late as it is safe to do 
so, which is until the new growth starts strongly, it will serve to 
retard the plants and they will not come into blossom until a week 
or so later than they otherwise would were the mulch removed early 
in the spring and not until the great danger of frost is pa^t. This 
latter method makes the crop late, but I think it the safest plan to 
follow. An ordinary frost seldom destroys the stamens, its dam- 
age being confined to the pistils, therefore the center or berry part 
of the flower turns black. 

How to Continue Beds in Bearing.— Some growers pre- 
fer to fruit their strawberry beds but one season. I think it best 
to fruit the bed at least two seasons, provided it is in good condi- 
tion when the first crop is gathered. I have often had the second 
crop on a strawberry bed better than the first, but generally it is 
not quite as good. The best plan to follow with an old strawberry 
bed is about as follows : 

Renewing Strawberry Beds. — There are several ways of re- 
newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is as 
good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered the bed 
is closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberry leaves are 
burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows and 
all but about one foot in width of it is turned under. The furrow 
thus made is filled with fine rotted manure and the cultivator set 



10 



STKAWBERRIES. 



going. The plants remaining are then thinned out with a hoe and 
special pains is taken to cut out all weeds and old or weak plants. 
This leaves the old bed clean and with plenty of manure close by, 
in which the old plants can make new roots. The plants soon send 
up new leaves which are much healthier than they would be were 
the old foliage allowed to remain, and if we have an ordinary sea- 
son an abundance of runners will be sent out, and by winter the 
old bed will look nearly as vigorous as a new one. 

This method of renewing the old bed has the merit of destroy- 
ing all the diseased foliage, and to some extent also injurious in- 
sects. It is very important that the renewed bed be kept healthy 
by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any insects that may 
appear in order to have it do its best in fruiting the following 
season. 

Sexuality of the Strawberry Blossom.— We have two 
classes of varieties of the strawberry, distinguished by their blos- 
som. One class has perfect flowers, i. e., all its flowers have sta- 
mens and pistils (male and female organs) . These can be planted 
alone without any other variety near, and will produce fruit. This 





Fig. 'Z. Bisexual, or perfed Jioicer 
of strawberry. A, petal; B, sep- 
al; C, Stamens; D, ^JW''i7s. 



Fig. 3. Pistillate, or imperfect 
floicer of strawberry. A. petal; 
B, sepal; D. pistils (notice the 
stamens are wanting. 



class may be called bi-sexual (See Fig. 2). The other class has 
pistils (female organs), but does not have stamens, or has but very 
few of them. This class is caHed pistillate (*S'ee i'X^'- 5). It is found 
in practice that the varieties with pistillate blossoms generally pro- 
duce more fruit than those with bi-sexual flowers, consequently it 
is advantageous to raise as many of such k'nds as possible and as 
few of the others, but it is necessary to have some of the bi-sexual 
kinds near the pistillate kinds or no fruit is produced. Just the 
proportion that should exist between the bi-sexual and the pistil- 
late kinds is a disputed point, but it is probably about one to three 
or four, depending upon the weather at the time of blossoming. 
It is safe to say that when pistillate kinds are used every 
third row should be of some bi-sexual kind, selected so that it will 



STRAWBERRIES. 11 

be in flower at the same time as the pistillate variety The neglect 
of this precaution is a constantly recurring source of disappoint- 
ment. Some growers recommend that every third plant in the row 
be of some bi-sexual kind. The objection to this way in practice is 
that the pistillate kinds, being often the strongest growers, may 
soon crowd out the weaker variety ; and then, again, when this 
plan is followed the plants when taken up are sd hopelessly mixed 
as to be worthless for setting a new bed. 

Figure 2 shows the blossom of a bi-sexual or perfect flowering 
variety, and this differs from Pig. 3 chiefly in having between the 
petals and the pistils a ring of many stamens. This difference is 
plainly seen in flowers of the different kinds by any one who will 
take the pains to more than glance at them. It will be noticed that 
Fig. 2 is shown with six petals and Fig. 3 five petals. This is not a 
constant variation between the two kinds and is of no importance, 
but it is thus shown to call attention to the difference in the num- 
ber of their petals in varieties, and it is not uncommon to find a 
strawberry blossom with seven petals, although the normal number 
is five. Different flowers on the same plant even may vary in num- 
ber of their petals. 

Dry Berries, "Nubbins." — Sometimes the berries fail to fill 
out evenly all over, or are small and mostly dry and hard or one 
sided. This probably results fi om the pistils, or a part of them, 
being injured by the frost, dry wind, or an unusually severe rain or 
hail, which, by destroying the delicate pistils prevents the forma- 
tion of seeds and the development of the berry adjoining, for it has 
been conclusively proven that unless the seeds are perfected the 
fleshy part near them does not fill out. Somet'mes the blossoms 
are stung by a snout-beetle, then they hardly form berries at aU. 

Picking and Marketing.— If the berries are to be sold great 
care should be taken to have them carefully picked. Green berries 
are bad enough to have in a box, but, if they are to be shipped, 
over-ripe ones will cause much more trouble, for tbey are sure to 
decay before they reach their destination and to damage all the 
good fruit. On this account the beds should be picked clean every 
day in warm weather. The pickers will need careful watching so 
as to be sure they do not put poor berries in the bottom of the 
boxes, and that they pick all the ripe berries so none will be left to 
get over-ripe. It is always desirable to pick fruit, that is to be 
shipped, in the cool of the day unless it should be wet. 

Gift packages holding twenty-four boxes are almost universally 
used in this state. They cost about twenty cents per crate, includ- 
ing boxes and cover. They are always made so there is room to 
heap up the boxes and to allow of a circulation of air through the 
boxes. A box holding little more than a dry measure quart when 
even full and nearly a liquid measure quart when heaped, is the 
size generally used. It is called the scant quart box. 

Diseases.— The strawberry is subject to several diseases, but 
only one is very serious. It is commonly called "Leaf Blight," 



12 



STRAWBERRIES. 




Leaf of strawberry. marJced by Leaf Blightr 
In its early stage {Sphaerella fragarioi.) 



"Rust" or "Sunburn," {Sphcerella fragarice) . It is a minute para- 
sitic plant which hives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the 
early spring small purple or red spots appear on the new leaves. 
About the time the plants are exhausted by fraiting, or perhaps 
before the fruit is fairly ripe, these spots increase rapidly in size, 
and in a few days what was a promising strawberry bed is dried 
up and worthless. Many varieties that are hardy otherwise have 
foliage that is sus- 
ceptible to this dis- 
ease, and some kinds 
should not be plant- 
ed unless some fun- 
gicide is used to pro- 
tect them from it. 

Our growers at 
present prefer to ob- 
viate the necessity 
of usiog fungicides 
by planting only 
those varieties that 
are very robust and 
healthy. However, Fig. 4 
it may be desirable 
to grow some varieties with weak foliage, such for instance as the 
Captain Jack, a line bi-sexual kind that was formerly very healthy 
but of late years has frequently been ruined by blight. In such a 
case the newly set plants should be sprayed three or more times 
the first season, commencing as soon as the young plants are well 
established, and twice the following spring, with Bordeaux mix- 
ture or some other fungicide. To do this requires no more labor 
or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the same num- 
ber of times, and the grower will be well repaid in the increased 
crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to diseases than those 
that are neglected. 

Bordeaux 3ILxttire.— This is made by slacking two pounds 
of quick lime in 20 gallons of water in one barrel, and dissolving 
three pounds of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in two gallons of 
water in another bar. el. A piece of coarse burlap is now put over 
the barrel containing the sulphate of copper, and the slacked lime 
and water is strained through it and the two compounds are well 
mixed together. It is now ready to use and should be applied with 
a spray j ump. This is the same solution that is so successfully 
used to prevent blight and rot on potatoes, mildew on grapes, etc. 

White Grab {Lachnostcrua 6>.)— This is the common white 
grub found in sod land and in manure. It is the larvie of a large 
beetle, and may be very disasterous when the plants are set on sod 
land, but is seldom if evei* very injurious under other conditions. 

Leaf Roller.— This insect is injurious in the lai'vas stage. In 
feeding it folds up the leaves by drawing the edges together by 



STRAWBERRIES. 



13 



silken threads and then eats out the soft parts. There are two 
broods of this insect during the year. The females deposit their 
eggs on the leaves where they soon hatch, and the worms com- 
mence their work. The second brood winters over in the pupa state 
in the ground near the plants. 

Remedy. — The larvae are not easily reached with any insecti- 
cide as they are nicely protected by the folded leaf. The first 
brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the frait. 
Since the second brood does not appear until July they may be de- 
stroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants. 
Where there are but a few infected leaves they should be crushed 
in the hand, a few trials showing the best method of crushing the 
worm inside. 

Shading the Straw^berry Bed.— Some experiments recent- 
ly made seem to indicate that the fruitfulness of strawberries may 
be increased by partially shading them, as shown in Fig. 5. While 
this might not be practical on a large scale, yet it is so very inex- 
pensive that it could easily be tried in the home garden. It is sug- 
gested that such a screen, w.th a light wind-break near by, would 




Fig. 5. Screen for shading strawberry bed. 
prevent the pollen being blown away, or the flowers or plants from 
being seriously injured by frost, drying winds or hail. It will be 
remembered that generally the best fruit, and certainly the best 
late fruit of the strawberry, is found in the wild state in somewhat 
protected and shaded locations, and that in such places the plants 
are most vigorous and the foliage is seldom diseased. Many ways 
of making such a screen will suggest themselves to the reader, but 
it may be well to add that it should be at least six feet from the 
ground— to allow of a good circulation of air and room to cultivate 
—and covered with willow or other brush sufficient to keep out not 
more than one-half the sunlight. 



14 



STRAWBERRIES. 



Varieties.— The varieties vary much in size, color, and qual- 
ity of the fruit and vigor, productiveness and hardiness of the 
plants. The flowers also vary, as has been mentioned under the 
head of "sexuality of the flowers." There are now probably over 
a hundred varieties catalogued by nurserymen, and new varieties 
are brought out each year, but of the new kinds that we have tried 
probably not one in twenty-five has been worth the keeping. It is 
well not to pay a high price for plants. The new kinds, if good, 
are soon offered at reasonable figures. As a rule it is not necessary 
to pay over twenty-five cents per dozen, or one dollar per hundred 
for plants. In quantities of five hundred or more they can be 
bought at much less cost. About two hundred plants, if well set 
out and cared for, will give all the fruit needed by the ordinary 
family. 

Warfield.— Probably the most popular berry grown. Blos- 
soms, pistillate ; plant healthy, a strong grower, producing a great 
quantity of runners, and is very fruitful. The fruit ripens very 
early, is of good size, dark red and firm, but not sweet or very large. 
A good variety to ship, 

Haverland. — A popular productive variety, having pistillate 
flowers. The fruit is of the best quality but not very firm, unless 
it is picked before it is fully colored ; a valuable variety for home 
use or near market. Not quite as early as the Warfield. Needs 
special care in mulching to keep the fruit clean, as it ripens close 
to the ground. Very healthy. 

Crescent. — For many years this variety has been very popu- 
lar, but the Haverland and Warfield are generally supplanting it on 
account of their being more jroductive. Fairly productive, vigor- 
ous, healthy, early. Berries of medium size, bright red, firm, quite 
acid. A good shipping kind and largely planted. Flowers pistillate. 

Jessie.— A bi-sexual variety. The fruit is very excellent and 
it is a fairly good pollenizer for most kinds, but it is a little more 
liable to be injured when in blossom than many varieties. 

Captain Jack. — Flowers bi-sexual. An excellent variety. For- 
merly very healthy and widely grown, but for a few years past has 
blighted badly. It should be treated with some fungicide to pre- 
serve the foliage. 

Beder Wood.— An exceedingly promising bi-sexual variety 
that has not yet been widely tried. 

Michael's Early — A strong grower, producing lots of pollen, 
but rather inferior as a fruit producer. We think it one of the 
very best for producing pollen to fertilize other kinds. Verv 
healthy. Bi-sexual flowers. 

Wilson. — One of the oldest varieties in cultivation, and where 
healthy is still a most excellent pollenizer. It is, however, some- 
what fickle about its location. 

Other varieties of considerable merit are — of pistillate kinds— 
Bubach, Princes, and Gandy, a very late variety, with bi-sexual 
flowers. 



CHAPTER II. 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



^OME species of the cultivated raspberry are found indigenous 
f^^ to almost every climate. Many species are very prolific of fine 
fruit in their wild state, and all of them improve rapidly under cul- 
tivation. It is an especially desirable fruit for temperate climates, 
where it is found at its best. There is a great difference in the 
adaptability of the different species as well as varieties to various 
climates, but there is no section of Minnesota where some kinds 
cannot be safely and surely grown if proper care be used in plant- 
ing and cultivating. It is a surer crop than the strawberry, and 
the plantations of it will last indefinitely, seldom needing renewing 
more than once in ten years, and frequently producing abundantly 
over a longer period. 

Species. — There are four species to which our cultivated 
kinds belong, and they quite readily hybridize together. They all 
have perennial roots and biennial canes ; i e. , the canes grow one 
year and the next mature fruit and die, so that there are always 
two sets of canes to each plant during the growing season. 

(1) Hubus Htngosun. This is the red raspberry of our woods ; 
there are, however, some varieties of it that have yellow fruit. 
Plants belonging to this class increase by suckers, which they gen- 
erally produce abundantly from all the surface roots. All of the 
most desirable red raspberries in cultivation, with possibly one ex- 
ception, belong to this class. 

(2) Bubus Ideus. European raspberry. In form and color of 
fruit and method of propagation this resembles the preceding, but 
differs from it botanically in several minor points. Varieties of 
this are not generally as well adapted to the climatic conditions of 
this state as our native species. 

(3) Ruhtis neglectus. There is much difference of opinion in 
regard to the plants grouped under this species. Some of the best 
lx)tanists consider the varieties generally put here to be hybrids 
between R. Strigosus and R. OccidentaHs. The fruit from this class 
is often of a purplish color, but is sometimes yellow, and the plants 
often increase both by suckers and by tip-layers. 

(4) RubuH OccidentaHs. Black-cap, or thimbleberry, A native 
species, very distinct from one and two; increasing by layers, 
i. e., the tips of the new growth bend to the ground and take root 



16 



RASPBERRIES AXD BLACKBERRIES, 



the latter part of the summer. They seldom produce suckers. The 
fruit Is generally black, but there are a few varieties with yellow- 
ish fruit. 

All the cultivated raspberries are commonly referred to as : 

SucKERiNG Kinds; those that increase by suckers, which com- 
prise chiefly varieties belonging to the three species first named. 

Tip-ROOTiNG Kinds; those that increase by tip layers, which 
cbiefly comprise varieties belonging to R. Occidentalism but a few 
that belong to R. v^lectus. 

Propagation.— The raspberry may be propagated by the fol- 
lowing methods: 

By Seed.— All the cultivated kinds may be grown from seed, 
but plants from seed are not "true," i. e., are not like the plants 
from which they came, and it is only an occasional seedling that is 
nearly as good as any of the varieties commonly cultivated. To 
raise seedlings the "dead" ripe fruit should be crushed in a small 
amount of dry sand, and the whole sown at once in a light moist 
soil, somewhat shaded. The seed will seldom germinate until the 
following spring, when after the plants are large enough to handle 
they may, if too thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to 
grow the first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they 
are. The plants should be taken up in the fall, "heeled in," and 
planted again the following spring, when they wiU bear fruit the 
following (third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as sooq as 
obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly with leaves or 
litter. In February bring the boxes into a greenhouse, transplant 
to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have their third leaves 
formed, and plant permanently outdoors as soon as large enough 
and the weather permits ; by this system some fruit is generally 
obtained the second year. 

By Root Cuttings. —Most of the varieties of raspberries com- 
ing under the first three spe- 
cies mentioned produce 
sprouts from the roots {Fig. 6), 
and these are generally used 
to start new plantations, but 
when there is a shortage for 
this purpose it is customary- to 
grow plants of the suckerlng 
kinds from root cuttings, 
which may be made as fol- 
lows: In the autumn after 
the plants have stopped grow- 
ing the roots are taken up, cut 
into pieces two or three inches 
long and put in boxes, with 
alternate layers of sand or 
loam. The boxes are then 
buried in some well drained spot until the land is fit to work in the 




Fig. 6 Easpbertij s^f$ of tkr euclti- 
ijtg class. A, befori' hmis hare staff- 
ed. B, after l)mls har^ started. The 
stem should be cut off at the cross Hue. 



RASPBERRIES A>sD BLACKBERRIES. 17 

spring, when the roots should show a callous on the cut ends. The 
roots are then planted three or four inches apart in furrows and 
covered about two inches deep in rich soil. By the end of the sea- 
son they will have made plants large enough to set out ( Fig. 6). 

This plan for growing plants from root cuttings may be greatly 
changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It is always 
best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cuttings from 
strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in the spring. The 
cuttings are generally made with a sharp knife or a pair of pruning 
shears, but nearly equally good results may be had by cutting the 
roots in a hay cutter. 

By Layers.— The Black-cap and some other kinds grow most 
readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach the ground 
about the latter part of August or first of September, and readily 
make new plants if held in place {Fig. 7). These tips should be cov- 
ered with a spadeful of soil, 
or better, be inserted three or 
four inches into a hole made 
by pushing a spade in the 
ground. They will be well 
rooted in three weeks. These 
rooted layers will be found to 
winter over most safely if 
allowed to remain undisturbed 
until spring, but should have 
a light mulch over them dur- 
ing winter. They may be win- 
tered over if dug and very 
Fig. 7. "^a^," raspberry set or plant ^/ carefully heeled in, or kept in 
one season s growth. The straight line ^ ^^Id cellar, but the plan rec- 
shows the pud thntjvill startintogrowihommended should be followed 
rn the spr^ng ana form the new plant. ^^^^ practicable. It isTot 
considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are 
very liable to winter injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging 
the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the 
roots to facilitate handling {Fig. 7). It is generally believed that 
unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain at- 
tached to the plant during winter than they are if the layers are 
cut off in the fall. 

Location and Soil.— The common varieties of the raspberry 
succeed admirably in any good soil; but the suckering class, which 
includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather better than the 
black-caps m moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy 
loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as 
It is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens 
the fruiting season in bad situations ; but it is well known that 
some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles 
far better than others of the same species. 




18 RASPBERRIES AXD BLACKBERRIES. 

Manure and Preparation of Land.— All varieties need 
high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured and thor- 
oughly plowed and brought into the best condition for corn or other 
gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard 
manure. Raspberries, especially the black-cap kinds, will produce 
very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough culti- 
vation is necessary for the best success with any variety. 

Time of Planting. — The suckering kinds may be planted in 
autumn or spring with safety'. When the work is done in the 
autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the 
roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protection 
against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in autumn, as 
at that season they can give the work more careful attention than 
in the spring. Then again the new sprouts from sets (suckers) 
start very early, and if the work is delayed in the spring they are 
often broken off or injured in the work of planting. Black-caps 
and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they 
are very liable to be winter-killed if moved at that season. They 
should always be set in the spring. 

Selection of Plants.— Since the canes are biennial there is 
no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees, when 
Ave refer to the stems ; but the roots may be of any age, as they are 
perennial. Plants of one season's growth are best to begin with. 
Sucker plants are generally best with 1 he varieties increasing in 
that way; but plants from ro3t cuttings may be just as good, or 
even better, when well grown. The old stools may be broken up 
and the plants set out, but such sets have few fibrous roots and 
often start slowly ; with the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by 
breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the sucker- 
ing kinds obtained the same way, and should not be used when 
avoidable, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of care. 
It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectl;y^ 
healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries frequently become 
d'«eased and plants from them a^e often worthless, consequently 
care should be exercised in buying plants. 

Planting and Cultivation.— After the land is thoroughly 
prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and 
at three foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. 
The distance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more 
space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are planted, 
but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the 
bushes are loaded witk fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach 
the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they 
should never be set any nearer ; while for some of the strongest 
growing varieties the hills should not be nearer than five feet in 
the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close 
to the ground and no fruit allowed to form the first season. 

A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way 
and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



19 



in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, and after- 
wards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with the feet at 
the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south, 
for planted in this way the fruit is shaded by the new growth dur- 
ing the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening. 

Depth to Plant.— Black-cap raspberry plants should be set 
about the same depth in the soil as they naturally grew. The roots 
should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The 
suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they natur- 
ally grew and be well firmed in. 

Cultivation.— The soil should be kept loose with a horse culti- 
vator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one- 
horse plow may be used, but the land should be kept flat and as 
free from ridges as possible. Frequent cultivation, especially in a 
dry time, is important. 

Pruning and Thinning.— Not more than two shoots should be 
permitted to grow from each root the first year, and these should 
be pinched off when eighteen inches high to encourage the growth of 
lateral branches, for it has been conclusively proven that raspber- 
ries fruit more heavily on the laterals than on the main cane. The 

second and succeeding 
years the suckering 
kinds will produce a lot 
of sprouts aU around 
the hill; four or five of 
those nearest the hill 
should be allowed to 
grow and the rest treat- 
ed as weeds. If a great 
lot of these suckers are 
allowed to remain but 
little fruit will be pro- 
duced. Black-cap rasp- 
berries will this year 
send up a half dozen or 
so of sprouts at the 
base of the old plants, 
and enough of these 
should be removed to allow the remainder to properly develop. All 
these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen 
inches high {Fig. 8-9). As soon as the fruit has been gathered the 
old canes which have borne fruit the current ^ear should be cut out 
and destroyed. {Fig. 10.) In the spring the suckering kinds 
need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the Black-cap varieties 
should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches {Fig. 11). This 
is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that 
they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit 
unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than they can. 
mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the 




Fig. 8. A, young black raspberry cane as it 
appears before innchiny. B, the same a 
short time after being 2Jinched. shoiuing the 
way groiuth stains from the bads. 



30 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield as much fruit as 
if all the canes were left their whole length. 

Mulching.— The first year no mulching is needed; but the 
second season, as early as the middle of June, the rows should be 
mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with 
what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on 
two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because it lies 
close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it 
makes a good manure. This material keeps the land moist, the 
berries clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as 
recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide 
between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the 
soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance 
of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a 
good profit and a big loss. 




Fig. 9. Fi-i- 10 I'^iG 11 

Fig. 9. A, Bed raspberry cane in autumn fhat has hei-n properly pinched in 

summer. B, Cane not jnnched. 
Fig. 10. A, The fully grown cane of the current season's groivtJi ahich will 

fruit next season. B, Cane two seasons old, which having fruited, 

is to be cut away. 
Fig. 10. Spring 2yru7ied Black-black ras2)berry plant. 

Support.— It is desirable in thiS climate to have fhe canes sup- 
poi-ted in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protec- 
tion is not necessary, the bushes may be so frequently pinched as 
to make them form little trees that support themselves ; but this 
kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be coh- 
ered in winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be 
'easily laid down. A very good support for rasperries and black- 
berries is made by running a No. 12 galvanized iron wire on each 
side of the bushes attached to a good solid post at each end of the 
row. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty- 
five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants to move gently 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



21 



in the wind but not sufQcieatiy to break them by its violence. It 
keeps the fruit oflf the ground and is cheap and convenient. 

Winter Protection.— As a rule it is not safe to allow any 
known variety of raspberries to go through the winters of this sec- 
tion without some kind of protection, not that they will always kill 
to the snow line if not protected, but because covering them in- 
volves no great expense, makes them almost a sure crop, and the 
covered plants seem to have more vigor than those left exposed. 
There are, however, locations near some of the larger lakes, or 
where surrounded by forests, that are so very favorable that such 
varieties as the Turner, Souhegan, and even the Cuthbert, are not 
injured when left unprotected in winter. 

The bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground 
freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost in 

the canes. The best 
covering is fresh 
earth. In laying 
them down com- 
mence at the north 
end of the row, re- 
move the soil from 
the north side of the 
hill, about four inch- 
es deep, with a gar- 
den fork ; gather the 
branches together 
with a two-tined 
fork, press gently to 
the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the 
hill and press hard, bending the bush in the root as much as pos- 
sible, and as little as may be in the canes, until r early flat on the 
ground {Fig. 12), and hold it there until second man covers with 
soil sufftcient to hold them down. The top of each succeeding hill 
will lie at the base of its predecessor, making a continuous cover- 
ing. It will be found that a little of mulch put on the canes first 
after laying them down will hold the soil rut on, and much less will 
be required than if no mulchjs used. After laying them all down 
turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as 
possible, and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed. 
It is only necessary to use soil enough to barely cover the canes. 
There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg, 
that en rich land are very diflftcult to cover. With them it will 
do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover 
the tops with enough soil to hold them in place. While it would 
be better to cover them all if it were practicable, yet treated in 
this way enough snow will generally lodge in the canes to cover 
them, and if this is supplemented with a light coveriog of coarse 
litter or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous they 
must be poisoned, or they may eat the canes under the mulch. 




Pig. 12. Canes laid down for 
covered. 



■winter hut not yet 




22 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 

Lifting Canes in Spring.— In the spring use a roundtined 
fork; carefully remove the earth and raise the plants to a slanting 
position. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes are 
shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised 
up straight. 

A Convenient Box Holder.— Thay- 
er's berry-pickers' box carrier (see Fig. 13) 
for use in picking raspberries and black- 
berries, is made of tin of a size to easily 
hold a berry box. It has straps to fasten 
around the waist of the picker, and a slat- 
ted bottom, so the berry box may be easily 
pushed up from the under side when taken 
out. Its chief advantage is that it leaves 
both hands of the picker free to gather 
fruit and keeps dirt out of the boxes. 

Diseases. — There is a great difference 
in the liability to diseases of 1 he different va- 
rieties of the raspberry. Some of the kinds ^^' 

producing the finest fruit are so weak in constitution as to render 
them valueless for cultivation, and only those kinds are profitable 
■which are strong ahd vigorous in constitution and resist diseases 
without recourse to special treatment. High cultivation will be 
found the best preventive of disease, but there are three diseases 
that are occasionally very injurious even in the best cultivated 
plantations. 

(1) Leaf Curl.— This name is indicative of one of the early 
stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they may 
remain green all through the season the plants make a poor, weak 
growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size, and rather bitter 
in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy sets with 
which they may be replaced soon succumb to the trouble. This 
disease spreads very slowly, and, as a rule, there are only a few 
infected spots in a plantation, which slowly increase in size from 
year to year. The spread of the disease may be prevented to a 
great extent by pulling and burning the diseased plants as fast as 
they appear. In setting out a new plantation use only land which 
hivs not been in raspberries for several years, and to take great 
care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from a 
weak plantation on any account. 

(2) Red Orange Rust {Caeoma lumbiatnni). — This is most hurt- 
ful to the black cap raspberries, though it frequently injures other 
kinds. It produces a weak appearance in the canes and foliage, 
and in the latter part of the summer the underside of the foliage 
becomes completely covered with a thick coating of brilliant orange 
colored spores, which easily rub off. One soon comes to know the 
plants that are diseased even before the spores appear, and they 
should be pulled and burned at once. This is especially necessary 
with the black-cap varieties ; but even with these, if the affected 



KASPBEKBIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



23 



plants are destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in check 
until a new plantation can be well started, and sometimes assidu- 
ous attention to pulling and burning results in stamping out the 
disease. 

(3) Anthracuose, or Cane-Rust— Also known as the rasp- 
berry cane-rust. It manifests itself by weakening the growth and 
causing the bark of the canes to become marked with many white 
or grayish, flattened or depressed spots, bordered by a ring of pur- 
ple; some of these spots may be one-third of an inch in diameter. 
This disease seldom does serious injury to any but cap varieties of 
the raspberry, and it is only occasionally noticed to any extent in 
this state, and then not as being very hurtful. In some of the 
eastern states it is so abundant as to almost prohibit the growing 
of cap varieties. 

The treatment for this disease consists in burning all the in- 
fected canes and in applying Bordeaux mixture to the new growth 
occasionally during the growing season, commencing early. 

Insects.— The rasberry is seriously injured by but few insects. 
The most common are the following : 

Raspberry Flat-headed Borer (Agrilus ruficolUs ) Fig. 14. 
The perfect form of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the 
growing canes some time during the summer. Where the eggs are 

laid peculiar gall-like 
swellings may occur 
{Fig. 15), having many 
rough slits in them ; but 
this is not always the 
case, for sometimes 
canes may be killed by 
the insect and no swell- 
ings at all appear on 
the canes. The eggs 
hatch into little yellow- 
ish-white larvae, having 
a flattened body, brown 
jaws, and a tail fur- 
nished with two dark-brown horns. One swelling may contain 
many larvae. When full-grown the larvae is from one-half to three- 
fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood frequently 
girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about the time the 
plants are in full blossom. They have a brilliant copper-colored 
head and thorax, and the body and hard wings are velvety black. 
As the insects winter over in the canes they may be destroyed 
by cutting and burning all the infested wood some time during the 
winter. 

Snowy Tree Cricket (Oecanthua uivens). Fig. 16. This insect 
does not feed on the raspberry plant in any way, but it is injurious 
on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with lines 
of little holes in which to deposit eggs. If this work does not kill 





Fig. 14. — Raspberry Cane-horer. A, larvce. 
B, mature insect. C, Horns at extremity 
of abdomen of larvoe. 



24 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 



1 he canes it so weakens them that when they start in the spring 
they are very apt to break off as soon as the foliage is expanded. 
The eggs, which are laid in autumn, are yellow and about one- 
eighth of an inch long. They are not readily seen when laid, but 
by the latter part of winter the infested canes take on an unhealthy 
appearance by which they may be readily located. They should 
then be cut out and burned. This icsect feeds on leaf lice and is 
thus beneficial to some extent, but it causes so much injury by lay- 
ing its eggs in grape and other plants with pithy wood, as well as 
the raspberry, that it should be destroyed as nearly as possible. 





Fig. 15. 



Fig. 16. 



Fig. lo —Gall-like sivelling r^i^altinq from work of raspberry cane-borer. 

Fig. \^—Sn\)iv Tree Cricket . A. Shonx Us method of trork in lite canes; 
an egg enlarged ivifh Us end si ill furl her enlarged. B, The insect that does 
Vie mischief. 

Varieties.— There are many varieties of the raspberry offered 
by various nurserymen, but the following have been well tested 
and are the most desirable, yet there are many other good kinds. 
About fifty hills of raspberries will be found suflScient for the ordi- 
nary family garden, and it will be most satisfactory to have them 



RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES, 25 

divided so as to give one-half of red and the other of the black-cap 
Kinds. 

SucKERiNG Kinds. Cnthbert—A strong growing, hardy, pro- 
ductive kind, having large, red fruit of good quality. The most 
popular of the late varieties. 

Marlboro— T\vQ most popular early red berry for marketing ; of 
fairly vigorous growth, hardy, and very productive. The fruit is 
very large, bright-red and firm ; however, it is of rather inferior 
quality. It needs the highest cultivation. 

Goldm Queen— Ltike the Cuthbert, but of a yellow color. The 
best yellow fruited kind. 

Turmr— The best known and the hardiest of the red kinds. 
Plant of strong, vigorous, healthy growth, and very productive. 
Fruit sweet, of fair size, though somewhat soft. Not popular for 
marketing. Other valuable kinds of this class are Hansell, Clark 
and Reliance. 

Tip-rooting Kinds. Schcefferls Colossal— Yery productive, but 
its dull purple color makes it a poor kind for marketing. Valuable 
for the home garden and for canning. 

OJiio — Not as early as the Sou began, but the most popular of 
the early black-caps for general planting. 

Mmeha—A beautiful large, very productive, strong growing 
kind, of medium quality and latest in ripening. It is now the most 
popular late black-cap raspberry wtih those who are acquainted 
with it. 

Other good kinds of th's class are Souhegan, Gregg, Older and 
Johnson's Sweet. There are no good yellow varieties belonging to 
this class. 



BLACKBERRIES. 



The blackberry is nearly allied— botanically— to the raspberry. 
There are two species of it cultivated, and both of them are natives 
of Minnesota and other northern states. 

High-bush Blackberry {Bubus villosus). To this species be- 
long the kinds geaerally cultivated. The fruit, almost without ex- 
ception, is black ; but there are varieties with whitish or red fruit. 
This specie su.ckers freely and may be readily increased by root 
cuttings. 

Low-bush Blackberry or Dewberry (Bubus CaiiadeiisU). 
The fruit of this resembles the above, but the plant is vine-like and 
trails on the ground. It is propagated by layering the growing 
canes, which take root very readily. Varieties of this species are 
not generally cultivated with much success, but in some locations 
they fruit abundantly. 




26 RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. 

The blackberry well repays careful cultivation. It requires 
the same soil and methods for planting, summer pinching, mulching 
and winter protection as the red raspberry. It should always be 
protected in winter. In the spring, 
however, the plants should not be 
pruned until the flower buds can be 
plainly seen, when, if in too great 
abundance, a part of the canes may 
be pruned enough to thin the fruit. 
{Fig. 17.) Never trim blackberries 
until the flower buds can be seen, 
for it often happens that the flower 
buds which are formed the year pre- 
ceding that when fruit is produced 
are near the ends of the canes, and 
in pruning all of them are cut off. 
This is a frequent cause of failure 
with blackberries. F i g. 1 7.-A, Blackberry cane 

_, . ^ , ,. ^ ^ i^roperly innched. B, Bkuk- 

The insects and diseases affect- berry cane grown icithoat 
ing the blackberry are nearly the summer pinching. 
same as those injuring the raspberry, and are subject to the same 
remedies. 

Varieties.— There are only a few varieties of special interest 
to planters in this state. About twenty-five hills of blackberries 
will be found sufiftcient to supply the ordinary family. They are as 
f oUows : 

Ancient Briton.— This is probably the most valuable for gen- 
eral planting of any blackberry grown. The plant is hardy, 
healthy and productive; the fruit is large, sweet and of fine 
quality. The variety next described is often substituted by deal- 
ers for this variety. 

Snyder.— In some sections, generally on clayey land, this vari- 
ety is most highly esteemed. It is very early, hardy, productive, 
and of good quality. 

Dewberries. — The Lucretia and Windom are the best known 
varieties of dewberries. They seem to do best on sandy loam, but 
while some growers are very successful with them, others in differ- 
ent locations, who appear to take the best of care of them, fail most 
completely. Where they do well they are very desirable, as they 
produce their fruit earlier in the season than the tall kinds. As 
the vines lie on the ground they should be heavily malched at 
fruiting time to protect the fruit from dirt, as well as the roots 
from dry weather. 



CHAPTER III. 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 



!)nWHE currant will grow and fruit abundantly in almost any soil 
(^ or situation in the Northern States if given good cultiva- 
tion; and even when it has but little care it is still very sure to 
produce a fair crop. However, no cultivated plant responds more 
promptly and generously to manuring and careful attention. The 
acid fruit in any of the various ways in which it is used is healthy 
and refreshing. It is not so universally esteemed as the straw- 
berry, yet it is used in immense quantities each year, and first-class 
fruit carefully marketed generally pays the grower a good profit. 
No fruit is more satisfactory in the home garden. A currant bush 
once planted will continue to bear fruit for an indefinite period, 
often for thirty years. There are very many species of currants, 
but our cultivated kinds belong to the following : 

(1) Red Currant {Rihefi rubrum). Native of the Northern 
States and Canada, Northern Europe and Asia. The European 
form of this species is the parent of all the red and white varieties 
in cultivation. 

(2) Black Currant {Ribes Negrum). A vigorous, growing 
plant; native of Northern Europe and Siberia. The fruit is 
black and all parts of the plant has a strong peculiar odor, tvhich 
to many people is unpleasant until they become accustomed to it. 
The fruit is grown only in quite a limited way. In many markets 
there is no demand for it, while in others it brings a higher price 
than the common currant. It is easily grown. Valued medicinally 
for throat troubles. 

(3) Missouri or Flowering Currant {Ribes Aureum). A vig- 
orous plant ; native of Mississippi Valley ; having beautiful, sweet- 
scented yellow flowers early in the spring. It is much cultivated 
for ornamental purposfes. Fruit large, purplish black and rather 
astringent. A few varieties of this species have recently been in- 
troduced as fruit plants, but none of them have proved sufficiently 
valuable to warrant their extensive cultivation. 



28 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES, 



Propagation.— The currant does not come true from seed.. 
The named varieties are grovra from layers, cuttings, or divisions. 

Seedlings are easily raised if treated the same as recommend- 
ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be taken 
with its seed than with that of the raspberry as it germinates very 
quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has started it 
often fails to grow. On this account the seed should be sown in 
the fall where it is to grow the following year. Or if sown in 
boxes they should be frozen until February or March, when they 
may be put in a greenhouse or ho' bed. But very few seedlings are 
of any value, and the growing of them is seldom attempted. 

Cuttings are very easily rooted and varieties are almost uni- 
versally grown from them. They may be taken off at almost any 
time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any age or size 
will root if carefully handled, but the following method is generally 
•very certain to bring good results : 

As soon as the leaves have fallen— which may be in the latter 
part of August or first of September— the young wood (growth, 
of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven inches long. 
They are then at once set out in rich, well di^ained 
soil four inches apart, in rows three feet apart. 
Only about one inch of the cutting should be above 
ground, and great care should be taken to very 
firmly pack the earth around the bottom of the 
cuttings. When thus treated they will have cal- 
loused and made some small roots (as shown in 
Fig. 18) before the ground freezes, and will start 
vigorously the following spring. The cuttings 
should remain as planted for at least one, or per- 
haps two years. If the land is in good condition 
they will be ready to set out when one year old, 
but can remain where planted for several seasons 
if well cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings 
may be shorter than recommended, but in such a 
case more care will be required to ensure that 
they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the 
cuttings may consist of a single bud each, and 
may be sown like beans m a furrow, but much ex- ^^^^; ^^ 
perience is required to be successful with them 
when madt^ so very small. 

Layers may be made at any time during the 
growing season, but preferably in the spring or 
early summer, as they will then be well rooted by autumn. They 
consist simply of branches which have been covered with earth 
and have become rooted. After becoming well rooted they are 
separated from the old plant. The way in which they are made is 
shown in Fig. 19. The branches are rather surer to root if the 
bark and wood is cut or broken a little, or if treated as in Fig, 20, 
but most varieties root very easily without this trouble. The cur- 




Currant 
cutting planted 
in Aiiqust ohoir- 
ing the. roots n>f 
tliey appear on 
the approach of 
winter. 



CURRANTS AST) GOOSEBERRIES 



29 




rant may be increased by dividing the old bushes, however plants 
so made generally have but few very hard roots and are slow to 
start into vigorous growth. 

Soil and Planting.— The currant will grow in almost any 
kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it will 

give good returns, but 
the soil cannot be too 
rich or the cultivation 
too constant for the 
best crops of fruit. 
Plants may be set out 
in the fall or spring 
with good results. If 
set in autumn each 
plant should be banked 
up with about two 
spadesful of soil. They 
should be put live or six 
'^:::'^^- feet apart each way, 

Fio ] 9. and for the varieties 

Currant bush with six of its stems layered. most generally grown 
six is better than five feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and 
those that are young and thrifty are better than older ones. "Where 
practicable they should be planted so as to allow of cultivation both 
ways. They should not be set along a fence or border, as in such 
places they are difficult to cultivate. The land should be plowed 
lightly with a one-horse plow early in the spring, and the cultivator 
started soon afterward. While the plants are in fruit, cultivation 
will have to be suspended, as the weight of the berries will bend 
the branches so that they will be in the way and liable to injury. 
As soon as the crop is gathered the working of the land should be 
again commenced and continued until the middle of August, after 
which there is no need of it. 

Mulching. — Good crops of currants may be grown without 
cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in somewhat 
dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than on any 
other. The mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes, hard 
wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is used it 
should not be mixed with the soil but kept oq the surface. It is 
often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate in the 
center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this purpose will 
keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with the neces- 
sity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good for this pur- 
pose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely used if kept 
on the surface of the land and not mixed with it. Partially rotted 
sawdust is much to be preferred to that which is fresh. 

Pruning. — The rurrant is improved by some pruning eacl 
year. Tnis may be done at almost any season, but preferably ir 



30 



CURRANTS AXD GOOSEBERRIES. 



August. To do this work properly it should be understood that 
but Yery little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding season's 
growth, and that the buds which produce the greatest amount of 
fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or older. The fruit 
buds are formed late in summer and open early in the following 
growing season. In pruning, the old wood which is weakened by 
age, should be cut out close to the ground and enough new sprouts 
from the roots should be encouraged to take its place. Not more 
than from four to six shoots from the roots should be allowed to 
remain ; the rest should be cut away, for if allowed to grow too 
much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will consequent- 
ly be very small. The wood which is infested by borers should 
also be cut out as nearly as may be. But for the past few years in 
some sections of Minnesota all the shoots of the currant have been 
infested with this insect. In such extreme cases necessity may 
compel the leaving of those least injured. 




Fig. 2,Q.—Cui'ranf layer split before layering to en- 
courage : tie formation of roots. 

Tree Currants are frequently advertised as being very desir- 
able and are often sold at a much higher price than commoner cur- 
rants ; while in fact they are our common currants pruned so as to 
make them take on a tree-like form. They appear very pretty 
while growing, but having only one stem the first borer that attacks 
it destroys the plant. To make plants take on this tree-form all 
but one upper bud is rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out. 
The remaining bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to 
branch at about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature 
tree. Such plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be 
renewed. The common red currant is sometimes grafted on the 
Riben anrmm, but such plants are open to the same objections as 
other tree currants, and are only valuable as curiosities. 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 



31 



Winter Protection.— The Red Dutch and a few other very 
excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situa- 
tion, but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are occasion- 
ally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, however, be 
easily protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated 
they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep the 
fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well in the 
spring after being bent down all winter. Another way of giving 
some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn with a string 
or willow withes. This is very desirable where the snow drifts 
over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by it when it 
settles in the spring and more protection is afforded by this treat- 
ment than is generally supposed. 

Marketing.— It is customary to market the currant in baskets 
holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart boxes and 
other packages are usfd for this purpose. One must study the 
local mat ket to learn which jjackage is the best to use. This fruit 
is generally sold by the pound. Unlike the raspberries and straw- 
berries it will remain in good condition on the plants for some little 
time after getting npe, but it does not ship as well if very ripe as 
when it is a little green. The fruit makes the firmest jelly before 
it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is sometimes most profit- 
able to market the crop when the berries at the ends of the bunches 
are still quite green. 

Insects.— The Currant Worm {Nfmatus ventricosus) is the 
most troublesome insect that attacks this plant. The female lays 

her eggs in rows on 
the veins on the un- 
der side of the 
leaves (as shown in 
Fig. 21) quite early 
in the season. They 
are white in color 
and about one-twen- 
tieth of an inch long. 
These eggs hatch in 
about ten days. The 
young worms feed 
in companies, at 
first eating small 
holes in the leaves 
as shown at J^, ^ 
and O in Fig. 21, but 
later on they de- 
stroy all the green 
tissue in the leaf 
'Fig. 21. — A, Eggs of currant worm on fhe vines on and then spread in 
the under side of the leaf. O and B, Holes „-,i j- +• 
made by the young worms when they first com- ^^^ uirections over 
menceto feed shortly after coming from egg. the bush eating th 




CURRAKTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 



foliage. They will frequently strip a bush of its leaves in a few- 
day's time if left to themselves. Figure 22 shows the worms at 
work in the latter stage of their growth. When full growm they 
are three quarters of an inch long. There are two broods of these 
worms ; the first appearing before or about the time the fruit is 
ripe, and the second two or three weeks later. The mature insect 
is a fly somewhat resembling the housefly {Fig. 23). 

Remedy. — Powdered hellebore mixed with its bulk of flour 
may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet, or it may be 
useO. at the rate of one ounce of powdered hellebore to a gallon of 
wa'^.r and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a 
ve7 V cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is 




Fig. 22,.— Currant worvis {Nematus ventricosus) a' work on the leaves. 

quite poisonous and is not safe to use when the fruit is ripe, 
although no danger wiU exist if several days should elapse after 
the application before the fruit is gathered, and a light shower 
after the hellebore is applied will remove all danger from it. Py- 
rethrum insect powder is a good, safe and effective remedy when 
applied just at night, but it is very expensive and difficult to obtain, 
of a good quality, at any price. 

Where these insects nave made their appearance the first in- 
dication of them should be watched for in following years and 
great care taken to destroy ihe first brood each season. Growers 



CURKANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 33 

aft!r'?hl''"lV^°''^\?^ ^r^ particular not to neglect the bushes 
after the crop is gathered, for it is very important for the next 
year s crop that they should make a good growth of wood, and 
neglecting them at this time often allows a crop of worms to 
mature to cause more extensive injury the following year The 
flies seem to prefer the foliage of native varieties of goose-ber- 
ries, such as the Houghton seedling, for its eggs, and a few of 

these bushes may be plant- 
ed among the currants, 
when most of the worms 
can be very easily de- 
stroyed on them as soon as 
the eggs hatch. 

Imported Currant 
Borer {Aegeria tipuUform- 
in). Fig. 24. In many sec- 
tions this insect in its lar- 
val state causes great in- 
jury to the stems of the 
currant and gooseberry by 
I so weakening them that 
they break off when loaded 
with fruit, and by making 
them sickly. The female 
lays her eggs in the stems 
early in the summer. In 
a few days the eggs hatch 
into little white grubs, 
which work into the pith 
of the stem where they 

T^Tr^ 00 ir . ^ make their burrows and 

FIG. ^.—Mature form of the Currant Worm, i i ^ p until f h*^ fnnr.w,-«„ 
A, male. B, female. ^® until tne tollowing 

season. They then finish 
their transformation and appear as wasp-like moths and the fe- 
males shortly commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly 
the red and white currant, but it also attacks the black currant 
and occasionally the gooseberry 

Remedies.— The infested stems should be cut out in the au- 
tumn or very early in the spring and be burned at once. If the 
growers in any vicinity will follow th.s method in united effort 
they can keep this insect in subjection. However, it is quite 
certain this pest will not continue for many years so very abundant 
as It IS now, but that following the natural course of events it will 
be checked by parasites or some disease, and we may then enjoy a 
period of comparative immunity from it for a series of years. 

liice {Aphia riUs) are frequently very abundant on the foliage 
of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves to curl 
up and become distorted thus checking their growth, but sel- 
dom causing serious injury. They may be destroyed by spray- 




34 



CURRANTS AXD GOOSEBERRIES. 



ing the foliage with tobacco water made by steeping the raw leaf 
or stems in hot water until it is the color of strong tea. Kerosene 
emulsion is also a very excellent remedy. It may be made as fol- 
lows : Soft soap, one quart ; hard soap (preferably whale-oil soap) 
one-fourth pound ; two quarts hot water, and one pint kerosene. 
Stir thoroughly until all are permanently mixed, then add two 
quarts more of water. A force pump will be found the best thing 
to Tnj y it with, and the mixture should be forced through the pump 
back into the receptacle containing it many times in order to make 
it permanent. In using this mixture its strength may have to be 
varied a little to suit the plant or the aphis. In fighting these in- 
sects it is very important to commence as soon as the first are seen, 
as they often increase with 
great rapidity. On account of 
the position of the leaves these 
lice are very difiicult to get at 
with a spraj^ and on their 
first appearance the infested 
foliage should be destroyed. 
It is sometimes most practi- 
cable to dip the branches into 
the emulsion. 

Diseases. — There are sev- 
eral fungi that attack the fol- 
iage of the currant. Perhaps 
the most common is the rust 
(Septofiia Eibes), which causes 
the leaves to fall prematurely 
in July or August. The Bor- 
deaux mixture mentioned un- 
der the head of the strawber- 
ry is probably the best pre- 
ventive, but should be used 

quite early in the spring aindFiG.2i.— Currant Borer (Aegeria tipuU- 

formis). A, loingedmofh; B. grown 




caterjnllar; C, pupa; Z>, sfe?n split 
open to show caterpillar inside and 
an empty pupoi skin above. 



again after the crop is gath- 
ered. If used just before the 
fruit is ripe it will badly dis- 
figure it. 

Varieties.— There are not so many varieties of the currant 
offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated fruits, 
but still there is much difference in the size and quality of the dif- 
ferent kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the plants 
For the home garden about one dozen plants well cared for will 
give an abundance of fruit. The following are the most important 
kinds: 

Red Dutch. — The variety most commonly cultivated and the 
most productive, hardiest and best kind known for general plant- 
ing. Fruit bright red, small to medium in size and in good bunch- 
es. It will hang on the bush a long time after getting ripe without 



CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 35 

being seriously injured. The fruit seldom brings the highest price 
on account of its rather small size, but if severely pruned and high- 
ly manured it is greatly improved in this respect. 

Victoria.— One of the latest varieties in time of ripening. 
Very satisfactory in every way and especially valuable for market- 
ing. Fruit red, of large size in large bunches, and it hangs on the 
bush well after getting ripe. 

Fat's Prolific. — Plant of moderately spreading growth. Ber- 
ries dark red, very large and borne in large bunches. It brings the 
highest price, but the plant is somewhat tender and liable to have 
its fruit buds injured in severe winters if exposed ; on this account 
it should be protected, except in favorable locations. 

Long Bunch Holland. — A very popular market currant. Ber- 
ries red in color, in long bunches. Rather more liable to drop its 
fruit as soon as it is ripe than is the case with the Victoria or Red 
Dutch. 

Cherry and Versailles. — Nearly identical large red-fruited 
varieties. They are not as hardy as the two kinds first mentioned, 
but do well in favorable locations. 

White Grape is the best of the white varieties and is sweeter 
and more desirable for table use than any before mentioned. It is 
prolific and very satisfactory in the home garden. But white cur= 
rants seldom bring as good a price in the markets as the red kinds. 



GOOSEBERRY. 



The gooseberry is closely related to the currant, but is not so 
generally esteemed. There are many species, but the varieties in 
cultivation are generally included under two species, yet a third 
may enter into the parentage of a few of them. 

(1) Bibes hirtellum. Native of the Northern States and Canada. 
Our best wild gooseberries belong here, and such well known kinds 
as Houghton Seedling, Downing and Smith are improved selections 
of it, little removed from the better representatives of the type 
in its wild state. Varieties belonging to this class are very hardy 
and generally most desirable. 

(2) Bihes gvossulacece. The European gooseberry in its wild 
state is not nearly so fine a fruit as the native' American species, 
but by painstaking care many kinds having large berries and often 
of luscious quality have been developed, until in England it is re- 
garded a fine table fruit. Varieties belonging to this species are 
poorly adapted to the dry climate of this section, and are prone to 
mildew and sunscald. Quite recently some very interesting hy- 
brids between the two species have been brought out which pro- 
duce very large fruit and yet appear adapted to our severe climatic 
conditions. 

The directions given for growing the currant apply with equal 
force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars which are in- 
cluded under the following heads : 



36 CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 

Propagation. — Most varieties do not grow as readily from 
cuttings as the currant, and kinds with coarse wood it is almost 
impossible to root in this way. For this reason layering is the 
most common method of propagation. If the layers are carefully 
put down in June after the new growth is several inches long each 
twig will be found slightly rooied by autumn. They should then 
be taken up, cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with 
each twig. These little layers should be set out at once in the 
spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cuttings. 
Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken when they 
are laid down, but most kinds root readily without this trouble. 

Planting.— Autumn is the time usually preferred for setting 
the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very early in the 
spring that any delay at that time causes them a set-back from 
which they may not readily recover. But plants may be very sue- 
cessfully set in the spring if planted early. 

Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or weak 
stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the size and ap- 
pearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be greatly improved 
if from one-third to one-half of the new growth is cut off annually. 
However, some of the newer kinds producing the largest fruit may 
need this recommendation somewhat modified. Large fruit is 
picked and sold most readily and the quantity produced from a 
trimmed bush is, as a rule, fully as much as from one not trimmed. 
This is especially true of our native kinds which are inclined to 
overbear. 

Mildew {Sph/ierotheca Mors-tevae) is the worst disease of the 
gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which becomes covered with a 
whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up and drop off and the wood 
fails to mature. In bad cases the berries too are discolored, and 
perhaps ruined. As a rule this disease does not cause serious in- 
jury in good locations in this section, but in wet seasons, or any 
season on wet land, or where there is a poor circulation of air, it 
may be very destructive even here. 

Remedies.— These should be preventive largely, and consist 
of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good circula- 
tion of air and keeping them in as vigorous a state of health as 
possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease makes its 
appearance in the face of these precautious recourse should be had 
to the following remedy, which is very satisfactory: 

Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young leaves 
begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eighteen or twenty 
days, except in times of heavy rains when it must be done oftener. 
For this purpose use liver of sulphur ( potassnon i>alphide) dissolved 
in water at the rate of one-half ounce to the gallon. The liver of 
sulphur dissolves very readily in hot water; costs from fifteen to 
twenty cents per pound, acd one gallon of the solution is enough 



4 
CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES. 37 

for ten or twelve large bushes if applied with a spray pump, but if 
sprinkled on the foliage much more of the solution will be required. 

Varieties. — The American kinds are best for general planting. 
Those most commonly offered by nurserymen are as follows: 

Houghton Seedling is the hardiest and most satisfactory of 
the gooseberries for this section. It is prolific with little care in 
almost any situation. If neglected the fruit will be small, but it 
responds readily to good cultivation. Berries reddish brown in 
color when ripe. 

Downing has larger and sweeter fruit than the Houghton, but 
the bush is not so hardy. If laid down and covered with earth in 
winter it is a sure cropper, but otherwise it is liable to lose its fruit 
buds in this section, . Berries pale-green when ripe. 

Smith's Improved is a productive variety of good quality. 
Berries larger in size than the Houghton and yellowish green in 
color. 

None of the European or their hybrids have proven a great 
success in this state. They generally mildew badly or sunscald, 
and require much care. The best of this class are the Industry 
and Triumph. The latter is a new kind of more than usual 
promise. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE GRAPE. 



>TtHERE is probably no large section of Minnesota, or other 
(^ regions east and west on the same latitude, where some of the 
hardiest kinds of grapes cannot be grown and ripened, while on the 
latitude of the southern half of the state, and on the highlands near 
rivers and lakes many of the best varieties are easily grown in 
large quantities. Our popular cultivated grapes are almost with- 
out exception the result of the selection and hybridization of native 
species. In a few varieties we find a little of the European wine 
grape, but they are not generally as vigorous and free from dis- 
eases as the former. There are many native species in the United 
States, but those which enter largely into the parentage of the 
kinds most valuable at the north are: — 

(1) Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca), the species from 
which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Examples 
of these are Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and Lady. As usu- 
ally found it has a large purple fruit, thick skin, and very pulpy 
meat surrounding the large seeds. The leaves are large, with 
whitish down on the underside. Found occasionally in the east- 
ern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in states farther east. 
The Concord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild 
vine which had been cultivated for two generations. Seedling 
labricsca are frequently white in color. The cultivated grapes of 
this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens. 

(2) Winter, or Frost Grape (Vitift riparia), the common 
wild grape found throughout Minnesota, except north of Lake 
Superior; as yet not much cultivated, but it is probable that some 
of its hybrids will prove valuable for severe locations in the North- 
west. 

(3) European Wine Grape ( Vitis vinifera). In its pure state 
this has never been a success in open air culture in the Northern 
States, but the tine quality of its fruit has greatly improved the 
hybrids into which it has entered. The so-called Roger's hybrids, 

38 



THE GRAPE. 39 

the Brighton, Delaware and others are the product of the union of 
V. vinifera with V. labrusca, and as a result we have among them 
varieties of the finest quality, though almost without exception 
they exhibit some weakness in foliage or root, and a predisposition 
to disease not found in those of pure labrusca origin. 

These species of the grape readily hybridize together. The 
blossoms of the cultivated kinds of grapes are generally perfect, as 
shown in Fig. 36. This is especially true of varieties of pure fox- 






FIG. 35. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. 

• Pro. 25.— Mows the way in which the stamens push off the cohering of the 
flower. The petals separating at the lomer edge. 
Fig. t<6.— a perfect flower XDith erect {full developed) stamens. 
Fig. Zl.— a flower with reflex {weak) stamens. 

grape (F. labrusca) origin; while hybrids having some of the Euro- 
pean wine grape (F. vinifera) in their parentage often have flowers 
which are deficient in pollen. The latter have their stamens some- 
what crooked and are said to be reflexed {Fig. 27). They frequent- 
ly do not produce enough pollen to fertilize their own flowers, and 
when grown alone the bunches of fruit on them are perhaps only 
partially filled out, having many small, seedless berries. This fea- 
ture is characteristic of the Lindley, Brighton and others, and 
varities with this weakness in their flowers should be grown near 
such kinds as the Concord, Worden, etc., which produce an abund- 
ance of pollen. 

Propagation.— The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- 
ers, and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. Pro- 
pagation from seed is resorted to only when new varieties are 
desired. 

By Seed.— If vines are to be grown in this way the seed should 
be saved from ripe berries. It should be at once sown in boxes of 
rich soil, or in a fine seed-bed, covering it a half inch deep and pro- 
tecting by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of 
one or two feet the first season, and will show blossoms about the 
fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, 
while others will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seed- 
ling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances 
for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- 
gent hybridization is resorted to. 

By Cuttings.— Grape cuttings are of three kinds— long and 
short, hard wood and soft wood. The process by which they are 



40 THE GRAPE. 

rooted varies greatly in its details, but the general principles are 
the same in every case. 

Long Hard-wood Cuttings.— These should be made in the fall 
from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to 
make them about eight inches long, if wood is abundant. The 
length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between 
the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of 
some varieties they may be ten inches long. They are often made 
six inches long, but so short as this they are more liable to fail 
from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if 
cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings 
should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury 
them in some well drained place with the tops down, and cover 
with about six inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure 
the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that 
they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is 
dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- 
tings and replace it with about one foot of hot stable manure, to, 
induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessarj", to insure 
their rooting, and they should not be planted out until well cal- 
loused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings 
with a box and sash, which will confine the sun's rays and so warm 
the roots tnat they will start a callous. When the soil is settled 
and warm they should be planted out, six inches apart, in rows two 
or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. They 
should be at least seven inches deep in most locations. 

The Land for Cuttings. — The land selected for growing cut- 
tings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be greatly 
improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and having 
a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When 
planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line, 
and a sub-soil plowrun eight inches deep in the mark to loosen the 
soil, after which the cuttings can easily be set by hand. The rows 
should next be straightened with a line, and each cutting carefully 
firmed by pressing close to each side of each cutting with the ball 
of the foot. When this work is well done the cuttings will be in 
the ground so solid that they cannot easily be pulled out with the 
fingers. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the 
top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are 
weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for 
another season's growth ; but if strong, they may be dug and used 
for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig 
all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in 
out doors for winter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the 
spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weak- 
er ones be set out, in the nursery to grow another year. 

One-ete Cuttings —The wood for these should be cut in the 
fall and wintered over in a cold cellar, buried in moss, sand, saw- 
dust, or other similar material, or it may be buried out doors. In 



THE GRAPE. 41 

the spring, generally in March, these canes should be cut up into 
pieces having one inch of wood be^ow and half an inch above the 
bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four 
inches deep, and having holes for drainage, should be prepared by 
putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the 
same amount of clean sand on top of it, Tlie cuttings should be 
set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting them 
two inches apart each way. The boxes may now be put in a gentle 
hot-bed, or on a bench in a greenhouse, and kept moist. The cut- 
tings should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made 
a good root errowth they should be planted at a favorable time in 
rich soil out-doors. The time for this will be as late as the latter 
part of May in this section. Very nice plants may be grown in 
this way, but they do not make as strong a growth the first year as 
long cuttings, and often need a second year in the nursery before 
they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. 

SoFT-WooB Cuttings. — These are made from the green wood 
taken off while the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in 
much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, 
fuschias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very val- 
uable, and as a means to increase new varieties. Plants grown 
this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well started, 
and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be 
obtained. 

Layering. — This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of 
increiasing the grape, and is the best way to grow them where but 
few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, which are 
called spring and summer layers, from the season at which they 
are made. 

Summer Layers are made in the summer, generally the last of 
July, from a branch of the same season's growth. They are likely 
to be weak for several years, and do not make as good plants as the 
spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch 
or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the 
cane four inches deep in the ground and it will be rooted by late 
autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year- 
ling vines grown from hard-wood cuttings. 

Spring Layers.— These may be made by laying down any 
cane early in the spring. It will root in one season. By fall it will 
have made a good growth of roots, when it may be cut from the 
main cane, and if srong it may be divided into two plants. This 
form of layer is illustrated in figures 28 and 29. By a little dif- 
ferent treatment of the spring layer a vine may be grown from 
each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane 
should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried. 
In the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted 
to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about 
six inches from each bud the whole cane should be layered about 
iour inches deep, handling it carefully so as not to break the new 



THE GRAPE. 



growth. Figure 30 shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is a 
good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill 
up the trench as the shoots grow. K covered four inches deep at 
once the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom hap- 
pens, and some skillful growers fill the trench full at once. In the 
autumn roots will be found growing from each joint, and these 
may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines 
grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used 
to some considerable extent vines should be grown specially for the 
purpose. It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to 
any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. 
The subject of grafting the grape will be considered* later in a 
special chapter on grafting and budding. 

Liocation of the Vineyard.— Some of the hardy, early rip- 
ening but inferior grapes wiU mature in almost any situation, but 

the better kinds need a 
warm exposure and free 
circulation of the air about 
them to insure their ripen- 
ing each year. High south- 
ern slopes generally offer 
the best locations ; in such 
places there is the greatest 
amount of heat in summer, 

AT, 4 ^ T very general immunity 

-A Rooted Layer. . '^ ° , 144. ,. ^ 

from the late frosts of 

spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at 
aU times; all of which are important matters in growing grapes. 
Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for 
this purpose, but on northern exposure the fruit will be later in 
ripening than if in situa- 
tions where the plants re- 
ceive the direct rays of the 
sun. However, excellent 
fruit may often be grown 
on a northern slope if it is 
near some large body of 
water, which will help 
maintain an equable tem- 
perature, and especially to fig. ^.-The rooted layer separated, rnak 
keep off the early frosts of ing two plants 

autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in so that the foliage of the 
vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers it will be 
found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes, on 
account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. Tne 
cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to 
tlllov'^ a free movement of air through the vines at all times, has 
often bepn the means of making the difference between failure and 
succ<^ss in growing grapes. 





«W 



THE GRAPE. 43 

Soil. — The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy 
loam, with an open clay sub-soil ; but a somewhat clayey loam will 
do very well if sufficiently drained to remove any excess of mois- 
ture. Before planting the land should be thoroughly prepared by 
plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. Where there is 
not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be 
found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six 
furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept 
smooth. 

The Best Vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty 
two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those having 
a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years 
old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon outgrow those 
that are old and large when transplanted. It matters little about 
the direction of the rows, they should be laid out so as to prevent 
the wash as much as possible. 




Fig. 30. — A rooted layer. Each bud making a new plant. 

The Distance Between the Plants will depend somewhat 
on the kinds planted, the manner of pruning and the soil; but the 
strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should gener- 
ally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, to allow for the growth 
of roots and a good circulation of air between the vines. When 
the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to in- 
crease this distance, but when located in an airy position and on 
retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet. 

Planting.— The most rapid way of planting is to furrow out 
the land both ways and put the vines at the intersection of the fur- 
rows. Before planting the tops of the vines should be cut off so as 
to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it 
will facilitate planting to cut them back to eight or ten inches in 
length ; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure 
the growth of the plant. On light soil it is exceedingly important 
to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be 
made large enough to aUow the lower roots to come about fifteen 
inches below the surface. The top loam should be put around the 
roots, but the plants should not be covered at once more than two 
inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. The soil should be 



44 TEE GKAPE. 

gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes 
are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe 
to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the 
right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on 
the one-cane system, which is generally practiced by grape growers 
in this region, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction 
in which they are to be trained on the trellises, this should be in 
the direction of the prevailing summer winds. 

Cultivation.— Soon aft^r planting the vines should be well 
cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be 
grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the 
vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of a shal- 
low plowing early each spring and during the summer. The top 
soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultivation. Deep 
cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a 
vineyard, and it may cause serious injury. If the land is lightly 
plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; 
but if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will 
get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. 

Pruning and Training are the great bugbears 1o amateurs 
in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar method 
has dooe more than anything else to discourage the growing of this 
fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact vines will grow and bear 
fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done simply to 
get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for prac- 
tical purposes it is a very simple matter. There are, however, 
many systems described in books, and occasionally used in prac- 
tice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to un- 
derstand. The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes 
are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears 
again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the 
bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left 
on the vine it will bear ten times more 
clusters than it can properly develop, 
and they will all be small and imperfect. 
(4) If ninetenths of the new wood is cut 
away leaving only from three to six 
buds to each stalk the yield of good 
grapes will be much increased. (5) It 
is uesirable in severe climates to train 
the vine so that it can be laid down on 
ihe ground with but little resistance, for 
in such locations it is necessary to pro- 
tect it each winter. Fig 31— Autumn of first year. 

If these points are borne in mind it T"** pruned and prepared 
. UV4. ^ for 7vtater. 

matters not so very much what system 

or whether any system at all is pursued 

in pruning. However, it will be found 

most convenient to adhere somewhat cleany to some simple system 




THE GRAPE. 



45 



of pruning. But whatever plan for after-training is adopted tlie 
care of the vine for the first two years should be about the same. 

The First Year no support or pruning is needed. The vines 
will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as if 
tied to stakes, but it will be mora convenient about cultivating if 
they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year all of the vines 
should be cut away except three or four buds, as shown in Pig. 31, 
which should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches 
deep, and later on, before cold weather sets in, apply a covering of 
mulch, two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some sort. 
This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the wintering of 
newly transplanted vines. 

Trellis.— The following spring a trellis should be built— unless 
stakes were set the first year, vrhen they may be used again— and 




Vine in spring of the third season. 
the work of putting up a trellis be deferred until the opening of 
the third year. The form of trellis may vary greatly, but a very 
practical and simple kind is made by setting posts twelve feet 
apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, 
putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and 
those above ten inches apart. The wires should be fastened 
securely to one end post, passing through the other end and 
through staples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the wires 
free play through them. This method allows the loosening of the 
wires in autumn and tightening them in summer. 

The Second Year, as soon as the weather is settled, the vine 
should be uncovered; the garden fork being the best tool for this 
purpose. Permit only one bud to grow, and that the strongest that 
starts. Rub off all the others that show, while they are small. 



46 THE GRAPE. 

Tie the cane as it grows to the stakes or wires, and if it grows 
rapidly pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. In 
carrying out some systems two canes are permitted to grow this 
year, but the system best adapted to commercial vineyards is prac- 
tically as follows: The pruning in ttie fall of the second year 
should consist in cutting off all the laterals— in other words in cut- 
ting off all the side branches close to the main cane. In pruning 
the main cane leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made, 
but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried 
as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient 
to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage 
take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the 
bend to come near the ground. As the vines get older and stiffer 
they will be found to bend most easily and safely below ground. 




Tig. ZZ.— Vine m autumn of the third seaRon. Doited lines show ukere 
inuaing should be done. 

Third Season.— The third spring the cane should be tied along 
the lower wire (see Fig. 32). If it has wintered well two shoots 
will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four 
inches long the weakest should be broken off and only the strongest 
ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. In 
selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those 
coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots 
push upwards from the main cane they should be tied to the wires 
(see Fig. 33) , and when they have reached the top of the trellis 
each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will 
check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed 
nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further 
pinching is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit 
are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and 



THE GRAPE. 47 

some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is 
probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is 
followed. 

If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this 
year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the 
vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill 
the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of the 
leaves on the vine. In this region the time of pruning is between 
the middle of October and tenth of November. Where one has but 
few vines it is best to wait until there is danger of the ground 
freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is 
not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence ear- 
lier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extrem- 
ity of the main cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the 




■Vine in spring of the fourth season. 

next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire 
■^he following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent 
main cane (see Fig. 34). The rest of the pruning this fall will con- 
sist of cutting back to from three to six buds the other shoots that 
have grown from the main cane. Any small side branches that 
may remain should be cut off, and the vine when ready to lay down 
should resemble Fig. 35, which shows it properly tied to the trellis 
the following spring. In pruning do not cut nearer than within 
one inch of any bud, to avoid winter killing. Bury as directed. 

Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the laterals 
that remain on the main cane in this and following years after prun- 
ing. From these spurs come the new growth and fruit each sea- 
son. It is desirable to keep them as short as possible, but with 
some varieties it will be found difficult to keep them very short ; 



48 



THE GRAPE, 



for instance, Moore's Early is a shy bearer, and if pruned very 
close will not bear even a fair crop, consequently the spurs on it 
must be left longer than on some other kinds that are more prolific. 
But careful attention in pruning to save the growth from the low- 
est bud on the spur will aid very much in keeping them within 
bounds. (See Fig. 31.) 

These spurs should be about ten inches apart on the main cane. 
If in after years some of them are lost, or they become too long, a 
new main cane may be introduced by encouraging the growth of a 
new shoot or by renewing the main cane with a shoot from a spur 
near the ground, after which, when well started, the main cane 
may be cut away. However, there are vineyards in the hands ol 
careful cultivators that have grown large crops for many years, on 
which none of the spurs are lost, neither are they long enough to be 
at all troublesome, and yet the main cane has never been renewed. 



. 


' 






1 




III 


1 

j 




■t 1 




; 


:1 








1 




I 


I 








•\ 


\i 


\i 


J 


/ 


ill 




L ", 


^ 




J 


\r 




■ *"ii' ^ 





Fig. Sb.— Vine in autumn of /he fourth season Dotted lines show where 
pruning sfiouLd be done. 

Fourth Season. — Tie the vine to the lower wire in the spring 
as directed, when it should appear much as in Fig, 34, Permit 
only one shoot to grow from each bud on the spurs. These should 
be pinched once when they have reached the top wire, and after 
that allowed to grow freely. This autumn, and subsequently, 
when pruned the vine will consist of a main cane extending along 
the lower wire of the trellis to the next vine. It will have spurs 
on it of three or more buds each, standing some eight or ten inches 
apart, as shown in Fig. 36. Under this system if the canes are not 
pinched in summer the fruit buds will be formed high up on the 
laterals and consequently the spurs will have to be left very long 
in order to have any fruit, while if pinched, the fruit buds will be 
formed nearer the main cane, and the spurs can be kept short. It 



THE GRAPE 41) 

has frequently happened that inexperienced persons failed to get 
much fruit on ttieir vines because in pruning they had cut away all 
the fruit bearing wood . However, this pinching should never take 
off more than the tip of the cane. 

Removing Foliage.— Under no circumstances should any 
considerable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. 
The notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at 
fault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the 
leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speiak, both 
lungs and stomach to the plant, and anything that injures them 
prevents the ripening of the fruit. 

An Easy System of Pruning, and also one that is well 
adapted to practical purposes, may be described as follows: Plant 




Fig. ZQ.— Permanent vine in autumn of fifth and subsequent years. 
Dotted Lines show where pruning should be done. 

the vines twelve feet apart in the rows. The second year permit 
two shoots to grow, and in pruning in the autumn of this year cut 
out the weak wood only. The third year tie one cane to the lower 
wire and the other to the third wire. Encourage the vine to spread 
over the trellis, and in pruniner leave perhaps one-third of the new 
wood. In after years retain enough young thrifty wood to fully 
cover the trellis, which will be ail that the roots can properly sup- 
port, and cut out as much old and weak wood as practicable, and 
shorten any very long canes. This will require the cutting out of 
perhaps four-fifths the new wood each year. As the vine gets old 
encourage the growth of one or two young shoots from near the 
root. When the main cane becomes so stiff that it cannot be easily 
buried in winter it may be replaced with one of these shoots from 
near the root, or what is generally preferred, the stiff part of the 
main cane may be Buried permanently and some of the younger 



50 



THE GRAPE. 




Fig. 37.— a Spur. The dotted 
lines show where the prun- 
ing should be done. 



wood, branches from the main cane, may be trained to form a new 
main cane. The main cane so laid down will become rooted and 
thus strengthen the new vine formed from one of its branches. 
Under this system no summer pinching is necessary. After the 
vines have been trained in this way for eight, ten, or more years, 
there should be many flexible main 
canes, and as they get old and too stiff 
to bend easily they should either be cut 
out and replaced by some young bear- 
ing shoot or layered as recommended. 
Trained in this way a vineyard does not 
look as symmetrical and pretty as when 
grown on some more regular plan, but 
it will produce as much fruit as any 
system. A little experience will soon 
show the beginner the amount of wood 
to leave each year. Vines may be grown 
on this system for covering high arbors, 
trees, the sides of buildings or other 
objects. In fact it is better adapted to 
a rather high than to a low support. 

Training vines against buildings or walls is a good 
plan, and such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and 
protect from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern ex- 
posure is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be 
about one foot away from the wall or building. In such locations 
it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise 
they would be a failure. It is doubtful if there is a habitable sec- 
tion of northwestern United States where fairly good grapes will 
not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every 
farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The soil 
close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can easily 
be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind substituted. 
And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for many other 
crops is just what is needed for the grape. There are cases where 
in such locations single vines have borne several hundred pounds 
of grapes in one season. 

Pruning Neglected Vines.— When vines have been neg- 
lected for several years it is often a difficult matter for the begin- 
ner to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on 
this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some- 
times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting away 
nine-tenths of the wood and then carefully thinning out and pinch- 
ing the young growth that may start. At other times again it may 
be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of the ground. If 
l^his is done at the proper season for pruning several sprouts will 
start from near the root, but only one, or at most two, should be 
saved. These sprouts should be trained the same as a newly 
planted vine, except that in one season they will make a vine large 



THE GRAPE. 



51 



enough to bear a good crop of fruit the following year. By either 
method only one fruiting season is lost, but as a rule the greatest 
success attends the latter method. 

Time of Pruning.— The best time to prune the grape is late 
in the fall or very early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid 
on the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in autumn, 
as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down process. If 
for any reason the vines have not been pruned until the buds have 
started, it is far better to do it then than not at all. The so-called 
"bleeding" of vines does not appear to seriously injure them, 
though pruning when the sap will run from the cut surfaces is a 
bad plan. 




Fig. srVz.—An old grape vine pruned on the one-cane, spur renewal system 
as recommended. From a photograph. 



Thinning the Fruit.— Under almost any system of pruning 
some varieties will set more fruit than they can properly mature. 
Where this is the case the poorest bunches should be cut away as 
soon as the berries are well formed. As a rule, the improved ap- 
pearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of this 
thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one. 

Manures. -Ordinarily the new soils of the northwestern 
states contain an abundance of plant food. Grapes do not require 
much manure, and the best kinds for them are those which have 
but a small amount of organic matter, such as wood ashes. Yet on 
gravelly or sandy lands they may be much benefited by the liberal 
use of stable manure. Never apply manure so long as the vines 
are making a satisfactory growth without it. A very rapid, long 
growth is not nearly as desirable as that which is well matured 
and moderate in quantity. 



52 THE GRAPE. 

Bagging Grapes.— In sections of the country where black 
rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the 
^apes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occasion- 
ally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But in grow- 
ing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is wanted, it 
will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for labor and ma- 
terial need not exceed a half cent per pound. The bagged grapes 
have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, are free from dust 
and spiders' webs, and are not so liable to be caught by the first 
autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen more evenly when 
bagged. 

Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size of 
small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For this 
purpose ordinary one-pound manilla paper bags should be used, 
such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They should be 
cut down about two inches on each side, and a small hole made 
in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, to let out 
any water that might collect in them. They are then ready for 
use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the branch, and 
securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be left on until 
picking time, when the bag and bunch may be taken off together. 
If the fruit is to be stored it will be found that the fruit will 
keep longer in the bags than without them. Generally the bags 
rema,in on the whole season without trouble, and some growers use 
the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags made especially for 
this purpose will last about four years. In Prance a wire bag is 
used to some extent for this purpose. 

Keeping Grapes.— The keeping qualities of grapes varies 
much with the different kinds ; some varieties will hardly keep a 
week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for two or 
three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold cellar is 
a very good place to keep them. The bunches should first be re- 
lieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid one tier deep 
on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may circulate freely 
among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry when put in the 
cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed for use some ice may 
be put in it in a tub and the windows kept shut in the day time and 
opened at night. If the grapes are packed in dry saw dust or cork 
bark they will keep even better than on trays. Where cold storage 
is accessible they may be packed in baskets before being stored, 
but in any case great care should be taken to remove any injured 
berries, or they will rot and spoil those near them. 

Girdling the Grape to advance the period of ripening is 
practiced to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of 
opinion regarding the ultimate effect of the operation on the health 
and vigor of the vine. It seems, however, to be pretty generally 
conceded that it can be done to a limited extent without serious, if 
any injury. That it generally advances the period of ripening 
from seven to ten days, and that the fruit from girdled vines is 



THE GRAPE. 



53 



considerably larger than from vines not girdled and of just as good 
quality. But on the other hand, some very careful experiments 
made by Dr. Jabez Fisher, of Fitchburg, Mass., seem, in his words, 
to show that "whenever a grape will ripen fairly well by natural 
processes girdling is a complete draft upon the future without 
prospect of means to pay it through the gains of the present " The 
operation consists in taking out a ring of bark one- fourth inch or 
more In width, at any time during the growing season, but gener- 
ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a special 
tool is often used, which makes two cuts and takes out the bark 
with one movement (Fig. 38).' If the whole vine is girdled at the 



Fig. 38. 
Girdling l-nife, 
rn.ade of two 
thin steel 
blades with 
cleaner at a. 



Fig. ^Q.— Girdled 
Cane. A, luhereruig 
of bark has been re- 
rnoved. B and E, 
ivhere the vine is to 
he pruned in the 
fall, thus cufting 
off the gird' ed wood 
entirely. C and Z>, 
growth from re- 
maining h uds infol- 
lowmg year, when 
D should be girdled 




surface of the ground it will soon show great weakness, so when 
practiced at all it should be done by girdling the lateral canes; 
those that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned 
(Fig. 39). In sections where early autumn frosts are common it is 
frequently desirable to try this method of advancing the period of 
ripening. 

Diseases.— There are many diseases which may at times 
attack the grape, but only two are commonly met with in the 
northwestern states, where on account of the dryness of the air 
there is less trouble from fungus diseases than where the climate 
is more humid. 



54 THE GRAPE. 

Downy Mildew {Porojiospora viticola). This fungus may at- 
tack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same time. 
When it attacks the foliage it first appears as greenish-yellow or 
brownish irregular spots on the upper surface, with corresponding 
spots of whitish frost-like mildew on the under side. The effect of 
this is to cause the leaves to dry up and fall off, frequently when 
the fruit is quite green, which consequently does not ripen. 
But besides the loss of the fruit from this disease the wood is often 
left in a very immature state, and the whole plant so seriously 
weakened that it will not produce a full crop of fruit for several 
years. It frequently acts in this manner on the Delaware, while it 
seldom injures the fruit of that variety. On other varieties the 
fruit is more susceptible than the foliage, and it produces brown 
rot of the berries, which may cause severe losses some seasons. In 
this case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a pur- 





FiG. 40. Fig. 41. 

Berries affected with broivn rot. Berries affected with black rot. 

plish spot appears on 'the side of the berry. L-ater, the fruit is 
covered with a white mould, and in a short time the whole fruit 
turns brown, and later on becomes soft and wrinkled. Figure 40 
shows a cluster of mouldy berries. 

Black Rot affects the fruit which it seldom attacks until the 
berries are two-thirds grown; these shortly dry up, turn black, 
and remain hard and dry on the vines, often until the following 
spring. Each dried berry is covered with minute postules. This 
disease is only occasionally injurious in the northwestern states. 

Preventives.— There are no remedies for either of these dis- 
eases, for after the fungus finds a lodgment in the tissues of the 
plant we are powerless to destroy it without injuring the plant 
itself. Consequently every effort should be used to keep the fun- 
gus from getting a hold on the plant. It has been found that where 
the vines are closely shut in, so that there is but little circulation 
of air and the water does not quickly dry off the foliage, or where 



THE GRAPE. ^^ 

the soil is wet and cold, that the Tines are very liable to become 
diseased. On this account where a vineyard is suDject to these 
troubles the first thing to do is to remedy, so far as is practicable, 
anything that obstructs free circulation of air through it. It the 
land is moist and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and 
black rot of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found 
quite effective. But after these things are done disease may gam 
a foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties in warm, wet 
seasons. Some varieties are almost uniformly healthy m good 
locations, while others are very susceptible to disease. Yet these 
latter are often the most profitable kinds to grow for marketing 
purposes. To grow these successfully recourse must be had to 
treatment with fungicides, and the following is probably the best 
method of proced are, and if carefully followed the expense of the 
operation and the loss from disease will be very slight. 

Use of Fungicides.— As soon as the fruit has set spray the 
vines thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture, made as recommended 
in chapter on strawberries. Repeat the spraying once in two 
weeks until the grapes begin to color, using Bordeaux mixture un- 
til August 1st, and after that date the ammoniacal solution of car- 
bonate of copper, made as recommended below. Bordeaux mix- 
ture should never be used after August 1st, or it may adhere to the 
grapes when they are ripe and make them unsalable. The carbon- 
ate of copper mixture has sometimes been successfully used alone 
without the Bordeaux mixture, but the latter is most desirable be- 
cause it stays on the vine even in very rainy weather, when the 
former would be washed off. 

For applying these mixtures a knapsack sprayer and a nozzle 
that makes a fine spray should be used. There are now many good 
patterns of these offered by different companies at reasonable 
prices. Of course a common syringe with a rose nozzle could be 
used for this purpose, but it will be found to waste a great deal of 
the material on the ground and put more on the plant than there is 
any need of. Carefully conducted experiments show that when 
these insecticides are applied as directed there need be no fear 
that injury will result from the small amount of copper that is put 
on the fruit. Almost without exception the copper is all washed 
off the fruit before it is ripe. In extreme cases where Bordeaux 
mixture remains on the fruit it can all be taken off without even 
injuring the bloom by dipping the fruit into water sliarhtly acidu- 
lated with vinegar. The fruit does not absorb any of tbe copper. 

Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper is made by dissolving 
one and one-half ounces of precipitated carbonate of copper m one 
quart of commercial ammonia. Then add this solution to twenty- 
five gallons of water. The ammonia should be kept tightly corked 
in a glass or earthen vessel. The solution should be added to the 
water immediately before spraying, otherwise some of the am- 
monia may be lost by evaporation. 



56 THE GRAPE. 

Insects. — The grape is generally quite free from insects in 
this section, but the two following named species are occasionally 
troublesome, besides which there are several others that may 
cause damage in the future, but as at present they are not numer- 
ous eLough to do much harm they are not referred to here. 

Grape Vine Flea Beetle {Graptodera chahjhea) is the name 
of a small, dark colored beetle that is most injurious from its habit 
of gnawing out the buds from the canes in early spring before 
vegetation has started. Later in the season it feeds upon the 
leaves on which the female lays her small orange-colored eggs in 
the last of May or first of June. The young larvse riddle the leaf 
with holes, or if very numerous eat all except the largest ribs, but 
they or the beetles seldom cause serious trouble after the vine is 
in leaf. 

Remedy. — The beetle may be jarred from the vines by a sud- 
den shake, therefore by putting a piece: of cotton cloth, saturated 
with kerosene, on the ground under and on each side of the vine 
before it is jarred the beetles are destroyed. They have only to 
touch the kerosene-covered cloth and they are almost instantly 
killed. Care should be taken that the pieces of cloth are together 
around the base of the vine. A warm, bright afternoon is the 
proper time to do this work, and it should be very faithfully per- 
formed every day until the vines are out of danger. By two per- 
sons working together, one on each side of a row of vines, each 
with a piece of cloth, the work can be done very rapidly. 

The Eight Spotted Forester {Alypia octomaculata) is the 
name given to a blueish looking caterpillar that sometimes is quite 
destructive to grape vines and the Virginia creeper by eating the 
foliage. It may be kept in check by hand picking where there is 
only a limited number, but when very abundant recourse must be 
had to the poisoning of the foliage with arsenites. 

Varieties.— For home use the hardy, healthy, productive 
kinds that do not require much special culture, should always be 
given the preference; whiLe for marketing varieties those that 
need special culture may sometimes be most profitable. The fol- 
lowing list includes the best of the varieties that have been well 
tested, yet there are many others that produce well, and in favored 
locations may even be superior to some of those mentioned. For 
the ordinary family a dozen vines are a great plenty, and three or 
four that are well managed may give far more fruit than a dozen 
that are neglected. 

Brighton.— A superb red grape of finest quality, of strong 
growth and productive. It gives quite general satisfaction, but in 
poor location* frequently fails to ripen evenly. Its flowers have 
reflexed stamens and it should be planted near perfect flowering 
kinds. 

Concord. — Where it will ripen it is the most productive and 
satisfactory grape grown. Of good quality, vigorous, hardy and 
healthy. In unfavorable locations in this section it often fails to 
ripen. Black grape. 



THE GRAPE. 57 

Cottage.— A vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive black grape 
of very good quality. Very early, and on account of this and its 
quality it should be generally planted in the home garden. It is 
rather undesirable for marketing on account of the berries easily 
separating from the stem soon after being ripe. 

Delaware.— A small, red grape of extra good quality. Gener- 
ally more popular than other kinds with commercial growers, but 
it is quite liable to mildew in some seasons, and on this account 
should be avoided except by those who have extra good locations, 
or who will give it extra good care. 

Hartford.- A well known early black variety of fair quality. 
Very productive and hardy. 

Janesville.— Very vigorous, healthy, hardy and productive 
berry, black, rather acid, of medium size in a very compact cluster. 
It colors very early. This is the most desirable kinds for very 
severe locations. 

Lindlet.— Like the Brighton, deficient in pollen, but quite 
productive when grown near other kinds. Of extra quality and 
one of the best keeping kinds ; with ordinary care it will keep until 
January 

LiADT. —An early white grape- of excellent quality ; hardy and 
healthy. Not very productive. 

Moore's Early.- The earliest grape of extra good quality. 
Vine hardy, vigorous, healthy, but not very productive. Berries 
very large and black with a heavy bloom. It requires rich soil 
and high cultivation for best results, 

PocKLiNGTON.— A little later in ripening than Concord, and is 
among white grapes what that variety is among black kinds, the 
most productive and satisfactory where it can be ripened. Hardy, 
healthy and productive. Only adapted to best locations. 

WoRDEN.~A magnificent black grape of better quality and ten 
days earlier than Concord. Hardy, productive and healthy. For 
general planting to be preferred to Concord. It should be in every 
collection. Occasionally it drops badly from the stem. It brings 
the highest price where well known. 

Green Mountain is a new grape that is promising for home 
use on account of its being very early and of extra quality. Berries 
small and greenish-white in color. They seem inclined, however, 
to drop easily from the bunch. 

Moore's Diamond. — A very promising new white grape of 
good quality, ripening from four to eight days before the Concord. 
Very hardy and productive. 

List of Varieties Recomsnended.— i^or very severe locations: 
Janesville, Ives, Hartford. 

For fairly good locations: Janesville, Hartford, Cottage, Wor- 
den. Lady, Brighton, Moore's Early. 

For extra good locations: Concord, Delaware, Worden, Lady, 
Cottage, Pocklington, Lindley, Moore's Early. 



CHAPTER V. 



THE CRANBERRY. 



CRANBERRY ( Vaccinvutn macrocaepo^i) . This is the low trail- 
ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. 
The form and habit is well illustrated in figure 42. The so called 
high bush cranberry is a shrub and is much more widely distrib- 
uted than this. The 
latter has one flat seed 
in each fruit, while the 
former is a many seed- 
ed berry. This plant 
is not adapted to gen- 
eral cultivation, and 
seldom if ever does well 
on the prairies of the 
West. It may be laid 
down as a general rule 
that it cannot be suc- 
cessfully cultivated ex- 
cept on the granitic 
soils of the northern 
states, and that it wiU. 
be a failure on the lime- 
stone drift soils, such 
as are common to the 
prairies of Minnesota, 
Iowa and the Dakotas. 
In Wisconsin and east- 
ern and northern Min- 
nesota it is often very 
productive, either wild 
or cultivated, and is an 
article of much impor- 
tance in the markets of 
those sections each 
year. Where tbis fruit 




Fig. 42 —Cranberry plant and fruif. 
One-half natural size. 



THE CRANBERRY. 



S9. 



can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be 
grown. 

Best Location for Cranberry Beds.— In a wild state this 
plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is 
within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather indif- 
ferent about the soil, sometimes growing on sand and then on peat 
mud or moss. As a rule the best locations a<re low meadow lands 
sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat 
sheltered but shaded. On uplands it has been successfully culti- 
vated, but in such situations it is generally unprofitable and fre- 
quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the 
soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied 
with water, and yet the land must be so drained that the water 
can at will be drawn off to at least ten inches below the surface. 
The best cranberry bogs are so arranged that both the flowage and 
drainage can be controlled at will. Land that has been covered 
with stagnant water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not 
fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and ex- 
posed to the air for a year or more. 

Soil Adapted to It.— Wherever the cranberry is growing 
naturally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its 
culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed proper 
location it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of the most 
favorable portion of it as an experiment before spending much 
time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile. 
With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of 
the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit is assured for almost 
every year, if the work of preparation is properly done. Yet there 
are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profit- 
able crops for many years where the flowage has not been con- 
trolled, and hence if that factor cannot be directed at will is not 
necessarily a sufficient reason why an attempt should not be made 
to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small 
cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be 
greatly increased by a little judicious expenditure. 

Preparation of the Land.— The first steps should be di- 
rected to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The 
proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and 
condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by fiooding the 
land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallowing, 
and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog, 
with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But in some way 
the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made 
level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If it is to be flowed it 
should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water 
for flowage than if uneven. This matter is especially important 
where the water supply is limited. 

Supplying Sand. — It is of great advantage to have the sur- 
face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and 



60 THE CRANBERRY, 

this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand 
used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from 
clay or loam, as anything that encourages the taking of the surface 
of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good place for the 
plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it 
conduces to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat 
beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used 
without sand the surface should be exposed to frost one year 
before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one sea- 
son's frost it becomes loose and fine. 

Drainage and Flowage.— The method of securing these 
conditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The 
drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open ditch 
four or more feet wide through the center of the land ; a smaller 
ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided 
into beds by lateral ditches, about five rods apart. Where springs 
are met with they must be connected with a ditch. 

Importance of Water.— The flowage may sometimes be 
controlled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek 
running through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to 
secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons : 
(1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in 
periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and 
occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up, destroying 
all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except 
by flooding. (2) The water kept over the plants in the spring will 
serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and 
will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that 
are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously 
injured by insects. (4) Beds do best when protected by a water 
covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously 
injured. 

Where there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to 
finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where 
there is not more than two or three feet of fall one dam is quite 
sufficient. Dams should be made strong and have sluice ways 
large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them. 

About Flowing.— All that is required in flowing a bog is 
sufficient water to cover the vines ; they should be covered about 
the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered 
during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not 
hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they 
are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the 
ground, is where the great danger lies. To avoid this the sluice- 
ways should be kept sufficiently open to allow any surplus water 
to pass off. 

The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines 
until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in condi- 
tion to bear, the water should be kept on until the last of May or 



THE CRANBERRY. 



61 



first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent in- 
jury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm, 
which are the worst foes of the cranberry. If the fruit is covered 
with water in warm weather it is very liable to be ruined, but the 
vines are uninjured by such flowa?e. Throughout the growing 
season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface 
of the bed. ^ ,^ 

Plants and Planting.— In selecting plants great care should 
be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren. 
There are very many named kinds, and they vary greatly in size, 
growth, time of ripening and pro- 
ductiveness, but it is doubtful if any 
of the named kinds, the most of 
which have originated in the East, 
are adapted to the climate of this 
section, and it is probably bet'er for 
the present to depend on getting 
plants from the most fruitful wild 
cultivated beds near at hand. The 
kind most esteemed at the East is 
called the Early Black. It is very 
early and productive, though not a 
vigorous grower. 

The cranberry plant grows very 
readily from cuttings, and on this ac- 
count slovenly growers sometimes 
cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow 
the pieces broadcast and harrow 
them in, but that method of planting 
is not advisable. The most common 
way is to make cuttings of the 
younger parts of the vines about ten 
inches long, and plant three or four 
together, as shown in Fig. 43, but 
sometimes longer cuttings are used 
which are doubled when planted. 
The cuttings may be carried over a 
whole season with good success, if 
they are kept covered with running water, but in stagnant water 
they would be likely to spoil. On this account they may be set at 
almost any season of the year if the flowage is controlled, but the 
spring of the year is generally preferred, and if there is no chance 
to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant. 

Before planting is commenced the bed should be marked off 
each way at eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a wooden dibber 
is used having an incurved or reversed wedge-shaped point, with 
which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into con- 
tact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first making 
a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the 




Fig. 43 —Showing method of 
'planting cranberry cuttings. 



Q2 THE CRAXBERRT. 

cuttings are planted the water should be raised in the trenches 
sufficiently to keep the surface land a little moist to encourage the 
rooting of the cuttings. The after cultivation consists in keeping 
the soil moist and giving clean cultivation. 

Picking.— If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine 
they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there 
is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked 
as soon as they commence to color, though when picked thus early 
they will seldom keep well after the middle of January. If severe- 
ly frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a 
"white frost." Picking is generally done by hand, though some 
few growers "rake" them off the vines. The berries keep well in 
a dry, cool place, but they are more easily kept if covered with 
water. 



CHAPTER VI. 



DWARF JUNEBERRY. 



'YD^WARF JUNEBERRY {AmalancMer Canadensis^ variety dbUng- 
^^ ifolia.). This is also called shad bush and service berry. 
There are several so-called varieties of it found in the north- 
ern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is better known 
in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as 
to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter 




Fig. Ai.— Foliage and fruit of Dwarf Juneherry, about one-half 
natural size. A, Fruit natural size. 



64 THE BWARF JUNEBERRY. 

form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the 
selected kinds of it that are cultivated for fruit. It generally 
groves from four to six feet high ; is covered with a profusion of 
white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with 
the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly 
one-half inch in diameter. Figure 44 shows its size and form. 
Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather 
tame, but by the addition of a little lemon juice it makes an excel- 
lent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and 
abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit 
must be protected from the bird s or they will take it as fast as it 
ripens. Mosquito netting, or the coarse wire netting — such as is 
used for chicken yards — is useful for this purpose. When grown 
on a large scale the depredation of the birds is not so.apparent. 
The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by 
our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from insect 
pests. On account of its many good qualities it should find a place 
in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near 
market at a profit. ^ 




Fig. 4b.— Full size flowers of Dnavf Juaebemj. 

Propagation and Cultivation.— The plants are readily in- 
creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around 
the old plants. These should be set out at about four foot intervals 
in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They commence to bear in 
two years, but will not produce a full crop until the fourth year. 



THE DWAKF JUNEBERRT. 65 

They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be 
mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning, 
though the suckers should be thinned out if they become abundant. 

Varieties. — There are but few varieties of this fruit offered 
by nurserymen, and these are the result of selections made from 
plants growing in the wild state. They are, however, much super- 
ior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly 
found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by 
cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings new 
varieties much superior to those now known will be originated. 
The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their 
fruit. The varieties that have been grown long enough to give 
them a fair trial are as follows : 

Success.— This probably originated in Kansas. It is productive 
of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit, 
with pendulous fruit clusters, Earlier than the others mentioned, 
ripening about with the early currants. Probably as good as any 
if not the best for general cultivation. 

Chester Center and Alpina are strong growing kinds of decided 
merit. They are rather close and erect in habit, and may attain a 
heighth of seven or eight feet ; very productive ; fruit reddish pur- 
ple ; fruit clusters more erect than in Success ; season a little later 
than that variety. 

Osa.ae.— Resembles the Success in habit but is not so produc- 
tive, and is the latest of the kinds mentioned. 

Aside from its fruit producing qualities the Dwarf Juneberries 
make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when 
covered with their profusion of graceful white flowers, which 
appear early in the spring. See Fig. 45. 



CHAPTER Vn. 



SAND CHERRY. 



^AND CHERRY (Frimiis pumila). This fruit plant is found 
c^^ in Northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, 
and elsewhere. It is especially fruitful even in the most 
severe situations. It frequently fruits prodigiously in dry, gravelly 
embankments where scarce any other plant can lind existence. In 
fact it seems to be better adapted to a very dry than to a moist 
location. In my experience with it plants from rich, moist land 
have flowered profusely but have failed to set much fruit. It 




Fig. 46 

66 



-Foliage and fruit of Sand Cherry. A, Fruit natural size. 



THE SAND CHERRY. 67 

seems quite probable that where the rainfall is light this plant will 
do well on rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is 
best adapted to sandy or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly 
on the sandy land of Northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land 
of the Dakotas. See Fig. 46. 

Description.— Some plants will reach a heighth of four feet 
and spread five feet on the ground, while others will scarce attain 
to half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but 
varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It 
is generally of a reddish— almost black— color when ripe. The ripe 
fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five-eighths of an 
inch in diameter. In some the pit is, small, while in others it is 
very large. The quality is generally too astringent to be relished 
uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants, 
some being fairly palatable. When cooked its astringency disap- 
pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abund- 
antly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which is said to be 
very palatable. It is not only a productive fruit plant, but a clean, 
strong growing shrub, and well adapted to severe locations on the 
lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part of July and first of 
August. It seems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and 
perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it. 

Propagation.— It grows freely from seed, which should be 
sown as soon as ripe and not • be allowed to get dry. Seedlings 
vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. 
They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the 
wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants 
may be increased by layers, suckers and from root cuttings, and by 
budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The 
easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the 
plants but eight inches away from the main stem sometime when 
the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form 
new plants. If the roots are cut into pieces about six inches long, 
and these treated like willow cuttings they will grow nearly as 
readily. When budded on the plum peculiar looking, interesting 
trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. The plum may also be 
worked on the sand cherry and it forms a good union, but the roots 
are so very flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the 
union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely 
on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymen, there 
having been no named kinds introduced. 

A form of this called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry has 
recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been sufficiently 
tried to warrant conclusions as to its value here. It is, however, 
extremely do'^btful if it is any better than the best of our native 
kinds. The Utah hybrid cherry somewhat resembles this but has 
a more erect habit. A quite limited experience seems to show it is 
much inferior to our best native kinds. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



BULLBERRY, OR BUFFALOHERRY. 



gjjrjULLBERRY, or BUFFALO-BERRY (Shepherdia argentea). 
,^^ This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and 
coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though 
but sparingly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and cen- 
tral states, yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the 
northern states. (Fig. 4T.) 




Fig. 47.— Foliage and fruif of Buffalo-berry; one-half /lah/ral size. 
A, Fruit natural size. 

Description.— A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- 
age and young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit 
are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on 
very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistillate 
and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have 
both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flowers appear 



THE BUFFALO BERKT. 



very early in the spring before the leaves, and are small and in- 
conspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abundance— often so 
thickly as to conceal the branches on which it grows,— and when 

ripe gives a scarlet 
appearance to the 
whole plant. Occa- 
sional plants have 
yellow fruit. It is 
about the size of red 
currants, - and con- 
tains one oval, quite 
large seed. The 
quality is very good, 
even of the best. It 
makes a fine jelly, 
but on account of 
the large seeds it is 
not so desirable for 
a sauce as red cur- 
rants, and it is 
doubtful if it will 
ever be popular for 
fruit where the red 
currant is product- 
ive and reliable; but it is an elegant ornamental shrub, and it will 
probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. (Fig. 48.) 

Propagation.— This plant suckers readily if the roots are 
cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readily 
if not allowed to dry and is winter covered wit;h earth and sown in 
the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the seed on the 
surface of the ground with an inverted sod. 





Fig A?>.— Flowers of Biiffalo-berty. (a) Pistillate 
Howers; (b) Starninate flowers. About natural 
size. 



CHAPTER IX. 



RUSSIAN MULBERRY. 



gjrJUSSlAN MULBERRY (Morns Tartarica). The mulberries 
^^ commonly grown in the eastern and central states are not 
hardy in this section, but that introduced from Russia under 
the above name is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The 
Menonites of Nebraska were the first to introduce it into this coun- 
try, and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree, 
but is much better 
adapted to being 
grown in the form 
of a hedge or wind- 
break. In this form 
it will often attain 
the height of twenty 
feet and become 
very close and pret- 
ty if given an occa- 
sional pruning. It 
is of very rapid 
growth. (Fig. 49 ) 

Hardiness.— It 
is very hardy in 
Southern Minnesota 
and Southern Dako- 
ta, and even north 
to the latitude of SU 
Paul it stands fairly 
well. Occasionally 
in very severe win- 
ters it will lose a 
part of its new 
growth, but it quick- 
ly outgrows any in- 
jury and it is less liable to winter-kill when old than when young. 




Fig. 49 —nu6siaii Mttlberry, showhia foliage 
and fruK, reduced about one half 
size, (a), Fruit natural size 



uadiral 



RUSSIAN MULBERRY. 71 

Its Fruit.— With very few exceptions all the trees of this now 
growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as 
with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces 
fruit of value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others 
are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some 
trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and 
occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies 
nearly as much as the size of the berries ; some being insipid and 
even unpleasant, while others are sweet and agreeable, but like all 
mulberries, they lack high quality. They are quite soft when ripe 
and quickly fall to the ground, which should be kept smooth so 
that they may be readily gathered. It is at its best just as it falls 
from the tree. It generally commences to ripen just before the 
first currants, and continues ripening for a week or more. It gen- 
erally resembles the blackberry in appearance, but the fruit of 
some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel- 
dom, if ever, as good eating as the black. The age at which plants 
commence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six 
years old they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they 
grow older their fruitf ulness increases. As a market fruit it prob- 
ably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. 
Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit 
alone to feed on it= It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this 
purpose something should be added to it for flavor. 

Propagation.— The seed grows readily if sown as soon as 
ripe. For this purpose the berries may be crushed in dry sand 
and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In 
two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the permanent 
location, but these vary much in their productiveness, and while 
for a wind-break they many answer as well as any, yet when 
plants are wanted for fruit they should be grown from cuttings or 
layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. For 
this purpose the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve 
inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land, 
with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches 
root easily wnen layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the 
sprouts until they root they make good plants. 

Varieties.— There are no named kinds offered by nurserymen, 
and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. However, if 
any large wind- Dreak is looked over in the fruiting season one or 
more trees can generally be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional 
value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two 
kinds; sometimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) 
are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex. 
On this account some care is necessary in selecting a variety to get 
one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind 
near a tree having staminate flowers. 



CHAPTER X. 



THE APPLE. 



J^HE APPLE is a native of Northern Europe and Asia. Its 
«^^ botanical name is Fyrus mains. The crab-apples have de- 
scended from the wild Fyrm baccata of Siberia. These two 
species readily hybridize, and there are quite a number of varieties 
of the apple in cultivation that show the characteristics of both 
species. The American native crab-apple (Pyras coronaria), so 
abundant in some sections, seems to be poorly adapted to cultiva- 
tion. It often blights badly in its wild state, and when exposed in 
the orchard is not nearly as hardy as the hardier kinds of culti- 
vated crab-apples. There is, however, one variety (the Soulard) 
belonging to this species, that is cultivated to some extent. 

This is the most ancient and also the most highly esteemed and 
valuable of cultivated fruits. It reaches its highest development 
in tree and fruit in cold climates, yet in extremely cold situations 
it seems to be somewhat beyond its limit and to require special 
care to make it profitable. Many of the failures which have 
attended the planting of apple trees in the northwestern states 
need not be repeated if the subject is given careful study before 
new plantings are put out. It is far better that one should be en- 
tirely ignorant of the subject, but come to it with a desire and in- 
tention to learn every de^.ail, than that he should undertake it with 
the belief that his experience in Eastern orchard methods and vari- 
eties is sufficient to guide him in similar work here. The methods 
and varieties adapted to Eastern and Southern orchards do not 
hold well here, and the following out of such methods, and the use 
of such varieties as are used there, has generally led to failure and 
discouragement, and to the often heard remark that "apples can- 
not be successfully grown hera" 

Among those who have given this matter the most careful 
attention there is a well grounded belief that this section will 
eventually raise all the apples that can be used within its borders, 
and that too of varieties adapted to every season. The season of 
1892 saw the markets here abundadtly supplied with the Duchess 
of Oldenburgh apple, and many car-loads of it were shipped to 



THE APPLE. 73 

adjoining states. The large crop in that year resulted from its 
being a favorable season, and also from the fact that after the 
severe seasons of some ten years previous, which proved the great 
value of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, it was largely planted, and 
these plantings had just commenced to come into heavy bearing 
condition in 1892. There is every reason to believe that several 
other varieties will prove even more widely adapted to general cul- 
tivation here than the Duchess of Oldenburgh. 

In this section apple trees are not so long lived as in a some- 
what milder climate, but they come into bearing much earlier and 
are very productive. The profits from properly planted orchards 
here are far in excess of those realized from Eastern orchards, and 
orcharding in some parts of this section offers a good field for prof- 
itable investment. The reason for this is found largely in the 
superior quality, higher color and generally brighter appearance of 
our fruit, and the proximity to good markets, together with the 
fact that our summer and autumn varieties do not come into mar- 
ket until the great rush of early Southern shipments has ceased 
and the winter kinds have not commenced to come in. 

liocations Especially Adapted, to Orcharding. — While 
apples will undoubtedly be grown in the near future to some ex- 
tent over the whole of this section, yet at present the facts will 
only warrant their being planted on a commercial scale, in favor- 
able locations south of the latitude of St. Paul, and in other loca- 
tions where the climate may be much equalized by bodies of water 
and other modifying conditions. There are many excellent loca- 
tions for orchards on the high rolling land and admirable soils iu 
this section. 

lioeation of the Apple Orchard.— The best location for 
an apple orchard is on high noithern slopes, tipping down to the 
northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, providing it does 
not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred 
because it is least affected by drouth, by sudden changes in temper- 
ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the 
south. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are 
located on southern slopes. It is important to plant apple trees on 
the highest land available. If the elevation is not more than ten 
feet above the general level of the adjacent land it is a great ad- 
vantage in furnishing air, drainage, equalizing the temperature in 
summer and lessening the danger from frost in the blossoming 
period. 

The Worst Location for an Orchard is what is called a 
warm, sheltered spot, where the sun has free access and the winds 
are entirely shut off. Into such a^place the cold air from surround- 
ing higher elevations settles at night, and while it is the hottest 
place during the day, it is the coldest at night. Blight and winter 
killing are apt to be ab jndant in such places. In some sections, — 
most generally those protected by water, forests or wooded hills— 
but little if any difference is to be noticed in the growth and pro- 



7i THE APPLE. 

ductiveness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed 
places this difference is very marked. 

Wind-breaks.— A free circulation of air is very desirable in 
an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting in too closely, 
yet in a full exposure is not found the best condition for a success- 
ful orchard. It should be surrounded with wind-breaks on the ex- 
posed sides, sufficient to somewhat break the force of the wind, 
but not heavy enough to prevent a good circulation of air through 
the orchard at any time. It is much |more important to have a 
wind-break on the southland west sides of an orchard, than on the 
north or east, for it is from the former directions that come the 
most injurious winds. 

The Ijand Best Adapted to the Growth of Apples in 
this section is what might be called a deep, "open, clayey loam, 
that is well drained, either naturally or artificially, and does not 
suffer severely from drouth or excess of water. But the apple 
may be grown successfully on almost any soil, even on that which 
is dry and gravelly ; but the orchard requires more careful manage- 
ment in severe situations than in those that are favorable. 

The land must be retentive and rich in plant food, for it is im- 
possible to raise good fruit on poor soil. Sufficient moisture can 
generally be secured by heavy mulching, and the newer soils of 
this section are generally rich enough for apples without manur- 
ing ; indeed, heavy, black prairie loam is generally so rich in plant 
food that it stimulates in most varieties of apples a late growth, 
especially when the autumn is warm and moist, and only the 
hardiest kinds, isuch as do not make a late growth in autumn, 
should be planted in such locat'ons. 

If the sub-soil is such very hard clay that the roots can scarce- 
ly penetrate, if at all, very deep plowing should be resorted to ; 
but as this cannot go deep enough to give the roots much of a 
chance in very hard, dry clays, the holes should be dug very deep. 
A better way than digging holes into such hard pan is to explode a 
medium charge of dynamite in it, which will so loosen it that 
the roots can penetrate. In some locations such treatment will 
make all the difference between success and failure. 

Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with 
plenty of strong roots (Fig. 50). It is really of little importance 
as to the size or form of the top of a tree, providing it has good 
roots, and is healthy and free from blemishes ; for if vigorous the 
form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are those 
not over four years old, that have made moderate and not a rapid 
growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most varieties, 
are generally the best to set. Two-year-old trees do very well, 
and are often as good as any. Those one year old are too small to 
conveniently cultivate around in the field, and are better off in the 
nursery for another year. 

Seedlings. — Apple seed grows readily and generally forms 
plants about twelve i inches high, with a tap-root of about the 



THE APPLE. 75 

same length, the first season. The seed does not re-produce in 
quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling 
in a thousand would be as good as any of the better cultivated 
kinds. Seedlings, however, are raised in large quantities, to be 
used in grafting, to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is 
generally obtained by washing out the pomace from cider mills. 
The seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated 
from it by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry, 
and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in the fall s hort- 
ly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and keep it buried 
in the ground until spring. If the seed gets very dry it often fails 




Fig. 50.— (^) Tree with very -poor roots, which were spoiled hy being cut off 
too short in digging. A common form. 

(5) A well rooted, tree loith all the roots coming from the scion. The origi- 
nal root in which the scion was set has been broken off. An uncommon 
form. 

( C) A well rooted tree with fibrous roots. Such roots grow well if carefully 
spread out when planted. An uncommon form. 

(D) A well rooted tree properly dug, leaving so?ne roots from the scion. A 
common form. 



76 THE APPLE. 

to start, or does not start for one year, unless scalded or mixed 
with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw a few times. In. 
a small way the seed may be kept mixed with sand and buried in a 
box in the ground until spring, when it should be put in a warm 
place until it starts into growth a little. It should then be sown in 
drills three inches deep and about three feet apart, in rich, warm 
soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the foot 

Root-grafted Trees should always be preferred to those 
that are budded, for this section, unless in the case of hardy trees 
that are already once root-grafted, and are budded to change the 
bearing qualities, when budding is as good as grafting. The objec- 
tion to budded trees is not to the method of propagation, but from 
the fact that the buds must be inserted above the ground into a 
seedling root, which seedling is of doubtful hardiness, and is per 
haps quite tender; yet is partly exposed above ground, where it is 
liable to fail at any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below 
ground and send out roots from above the graft, which increases 
the hardiness of the trees. Quite frequently the roots of a budded 
or grafted tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy 
and sound ; consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy 
as the top. But as this is not always practicable every effort 
should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In more 
favorable locations budded trees may be just as desirable as those 
that are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft, whether with whole 
or piece roots, makes but little difference to the ordinary planter, 
who should look especially to getting good trees, when he should 
be careful to plant the graft well below the surface of the ground. 

Planting.— The land should be in as good condition as is re- 
quired for corn. The work of planting will be greatly facilitated 
if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large plow, and the 
trees' set at the intersections. If the trees must be set in sod, a 
hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree ; no grass 
should be allowed to grow in this space, and it should be heavily 
mulched. In setting the trees the holes should be made large 
enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If it is neces- 
sary to set trees into the sub-soil, and it often is, then in digging 
the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the sub-soil 
and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in contact 
with the roots. The roots should be evenly spread out in the hole 
and the fine top-soil carefully worked among them so as not to 
leave any air spaces between or under them. If the soil is dry it 
can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If wet but little 
pressure should be used. 

The Time to Plant.— In the north apple trees should never 
be set in the fall of the year, nor should they be dug from the nur- 
sery rows in the spring, as they are very liable to be weakened ; if 
not seriously injured by the winter if left exposed. They should 
be dug in the autumn and buried root and branch— "heeled in"- in 
dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in a cold 



THE APPLE. 



77 



cellar, with their roots buried in soil. As few cellars are fit for 
this purpose it is generally safer to bury them outside. As a rule 
it is best for planters to get their trees in the fall, as they are then 
more certain to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for 
them to come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the 
soil works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf. 
As a rule moderately early planting gives the best results, but trees 
should never be set in wet, sticky soil. 

Heeling In is a term used to designate the temporary bury- 
ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If the 
trees are to be moved again in a few days a very light covering 
will be sufficient ; but if they are to remain several weeks much 
care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with, select a 
dry, mellow piece of ground ; dig a wide trench, put in the trees— 
a few at a time— either in an erect or sloping position, and cover 
them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out. If apple or other 
somewhat tender trees are to remain heeled in over winter it will 
be found best to commence by digging a trench about two feet deep 




Fig. 51.— Various stages of the opfraiion. A, Row of trees wilh roots 
covered; B, a row bent down, and the tops covered with earth at C. 

and three feet wide in dry land, where no water will stand in the 
trenches ; put in a layer of trees sloping ; cover the roots with a 
thin layer of fine, mellow earth, filling in carefully and solid all the 
interstices among the roots and stems ; continue thus until all the 
trees are in, when the tops and all should be bent down to the 
ground and entirely covered with about six inches of earth. Fig- 
ure 51 shows the various stages of the operation, (J., Row of trees 
with roots covered; ^, A row bent down and the tops covered 
with earth at C.) The stems and all should be completely covered 
when the work is finished. 

Depth to Plant.— In the best locations the trees should be set 
about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In very 
dry, light soil they may be put twelve Inches deeper than they 
naturally grew. On steep hillsides they must be set much deeper, 
or they will come too near the surface owing to the slope of the 
land. One of the most important objects secured by deep planting 



78 THE APPLE. 

is the sending out of roots from the scion, for when trees are well 
rooted from the scion they are generally much improved in har- 
diness. However, in heavy retentive soil deep planting is not 
desirable. 

Distance Apart to Plant.— Apple trees in cold regions 
should be set quite close to one another. In favorable locations 
they should be set further apart than when the conditions are very 
severe. Most varieties do best when not over sixteen feet apart ; 
but upright growing kinds should be set closer. The Duchess of 

Oldenburgh does very well 
North. in severe locations when 

* * *. * * set not over twelve feet 

apart each way. The trees 
^ ^ ^ „ ^ should be set so as to 

"break joints", north and 
south — that is, the trees in 
***** one row should be set op- 
posite the vacancies in the 
.J, ^ ^ ^ next. If the rows run 

northeast and southwest 
the trees will shade one 

* ^ * * * another on the southwest 

South. side, which is most liable 

Fig. m.— Asterisks showing desirable ar- to injury from the sun. 
rangement of the trees in the orchard. Figure 52 shows the ar- 

rangement of the trees. 

Cultivation. — Young orchards should be cultivated in some 
hoed crop that does not necessitate the working of the soil in 
autumn, but will keep the land well worked in the early summer. 
For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good crops. 
Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buckwheat, 
however, seems to be an exception to this rule, and on account of 
its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose. After the 
trees begin to bear it is often a good plan to seed the land to clover, 
which should be broken up occasionally. The trees should be well 
mulched, and if they do not make a satisfactory growth should be 
well manured. When an orchard becomes "sod bound" nothing 
will do it more good than a drove of hogs sufticient to root up all 
the sod, but they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides 
breaking up the sod the hogs are very beneficial by destroying 
many kinds of insects. 

Forming the Tree.— Whatever may be the shape of the 
tree when it is received from the nursery, it will need careful 
attention in the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with 
a long or a short trunk, is a much disputed one ; but it may be laid 
down as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of the 
hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three feet 
from the ground, but in such cases it should have some protection. 
In very severe and exposed locations, or in the case of somewhat 



THE APPLE. 



r9 



tender varieties, it will be better to have the trees branch near to 
the ground (Fig. 53) , since when so formed they are hardier and 
less exposed to the wind than if they have tall trunks. There is a 
constant tendency for our trees to incline to the northeast, and this 
should be prevented so far as possible. To do this the growth 
should be encouraged on the southwest side by light summer prun- 
ing on the north side. Also, in setting the trees they should be 
slightly inclined to the southwest, and an effort made to keep them 
in that position. 




Fig 



A low-headed tree with trunk boxed. Form and treatment 
adapted to severe locations. 



Pruning.— In pruning it is well to remember that pruning in 
the summer checks growth, and pruning at suitable times, when 
the tree is dormant, stimulates growth. Pruning apple trees just 
as the sap is starting in the spring is a bad practice, and generally 
results in quite a portion of the pruned limb dying back or being 
seriously weakened. The best time to prune is in June, as then 
the wounds heal over at once. But if a very large amount of wood 
must be removed it would be better to cut it off in October, or dur- 



so 



THE APPLE. 



ing warm days in March, before the sap starts, as the removal of a 
large amount of foliage in June might give a serious check to the 
tree. Scions for grafting are generally cut in November, before 
severe weather. Very light pruning may be done safely at almost 
any time, except as noted above. If the work of pruning is pro- 
perly attended to there will be no need of heavy pruning, and gen- 
erally a little pinching or rubbing off of the growth in summer is 
sufficient. In a northern climate it is better not to prune at all 
than to prune too much, and apple trees only need to have inter- 
locking and straggling branches removed or shortened. They need 
all their wood for the protection it affords. All wounds over one- 
half inch in diameter should be covered with grafting wax. 

When trees are received they should have all broken or bruised 
roots removed, and the ends of all roots cut off smooth. The top, 
too, should be cut back about one-half or more of its new growth to 
correspond to the loss of roots. Some varieties— the Wealthy, for 
instance— will sometimes kill back severely and then sprout from 
the roots. In such a case the sprouts should be encouraged to 
make a new tree, which they will do very quickly if given a little 
care, and then they are often more productive than ever. 

Injured. Trees.- One of the most common forms of injury to 
trees is girdling by mice or rabbits. If the girdling is not com- 
plete, even though only a small part of the inner bark extends 
across the wound, the best treatment is to bank up around it with 
earth, and this is good treatment for any wound. If injury of any 
kind is so far from the ground that banking up is impracticable, 
the wound should be covered with grafting wax and cloth, or with 
clay or cow manure, so as to exclude the air. When large wounds 
are left exposed they do not heal readily, and often the wood sea- 
sons through and permanent injury results. Covering the wounds 
with heavy paper, even without other protection, aids very much 





Fig. bi.— Girdled tree nilh wound bridged ocer. A, a girdled trunk. 
B, scions inserted; C, method of inserting scions. 

in the healing process. Another way of saving girdled trees is to 
wait until the bark peels freely and then spring in scions long 
enough to connect the sound inside bark above and below the in- 
jury. The ends of long scions are cut all on one side and shoved 
under the bark as in bu<Uing (Fig. 54). The tree eagerly seizes 



THE APPLE. 81 

upon this opportunity for making a connection between the root 
and top in the cambium layer, and the scions increase in size until 
finally they close up and make a covering as good as the original 
bark. 

Mulching.— The advantage of a mulch around trees is not 
generally appreciated. It checks evaporation and prevents the 
running off of water which allows it to soak into the land. It 
helps to equalize the moisture in the soil throughout the growing 
season, and prevents root-killing in winter. It is of the greatest 
assistance in rather dry locations, where its use makes success 
possible with many varieties that otherwise would be complete 
failures. In almost any soil in the Northwest the chances of trees 
living and doing well would be increased by the use of a mulch 
around them, but this is especially true of sandy land and southern 
exposures. It is generally best to cultivate the land around trees 
when they are small ; but if they are set on sod land, or after they 
begin to bear, or if they suffer from drouth, they should be heavily 
mulched at once, and this should be renewed as often as necessary, 
to keep a covering five or six inches m depth on the ground at all 
times extending at least four feet on all sides from the tree, and 
in the case of larger trees extending out as far as the branches. 
This mulch may consist of any litter, straw, bagasse, hardwood 
sawdust, brush, weeds and grape trimmings, and even coal ashes 
are good for this purpose. 

Manuring.— Young orchards are sometimes injured by too 
much man are, which stimulates a late autumn growth that may so 
weaken the tree that it may be winter killed. But if crops are 
grown in an orchard enough manure must be added to put back the 
plant food carried off in the crop. After trees begin to bear fruit 
they need manuring, and without it they are very liable to run out. 
All manures for orchards should be applied to the land during the 
time between the fall of the leaves in the autumn and their appear- 
ance again in the spring. In case the manure is well-rotted it 
should be applied in the spring. Barnyard manure is as good as 
anything for this purpose. Some soils, however, will maintain 
their fertility without manure, providing a crop of clover is plowed 
in every few years. 

Sunscald. — This is the name given to a condition of trees 
when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest sides of 
trees (Pig. 55) . This is a very serious cause of loss of trees in' 
high latitudes, and all trees should be protected against it. It is 
probably due to the action of the sun in starting the growth on the 
southwest side of the trees and then being suddenly checked by 
the cold. It is most liable to occur in the latter part of winter. 
Some varieties are much more liable to this trouble than others. 
Trees that incline to the northwest, so that the sun's rays fall di- 
rectly on the trunk, are very liable to it. If trees are planted and 
kept inclined to the southwest until the tianches shade the trunk, 
they will not be affected. Anything that shades the trunk pre- 



THE APPLE. 



vents this trouble, and various means are employed to that end. 
Sometimes the trunk is covered with hay, straw, corn-stalks, bur- 
lap or paper, wire netting or laths wired together, or it may be 
shaded by a board set up on the southwest side. All these are good 
and answer the purpose, and many of them protect from mice, 
rabbits, and flat-head borers as well, if properly attended to ; but 
one of the best is the lath screen, which is easily made, is cheap, 
durable and satisfactory. 




Fig. bh—Sunscaldfdlree. Fir, h&.—Ln(h screen in 

a, a. rt, dead wood. place around tree. 

The lath screen protector is shown in Fig. 56. It is easily ard 
quickly made, but whether it will be cheaper to use than wood 
veneers will depend on circumstances. Each of these methods of 
protection secures immunity from sunscaJd, mice, rabbits and Ihe 
flat-head borer to the part they cover, and also protect the bark 
from whiflBe-trees. Six cr seven common laths and three No. 18 



THE APPLE. 




Fig. b7.—Shoiving method of making lath 

screen. 



wires are necessary to make the lath screens. The laths are left 
one-fourth of an inch apart, and the wire is simply crossed between 
the laths and not twisted. Methods of making it will readily sug- 
gest themselves. It may be made on a common work-bench by the 
device shown in Fig. 57, which is from an article by Prof. Goff, in 
the "Wisconsin Horticultural Report for 1891. A, A, A represent 
nails in the bench to which are attached the wires. Bj the first 

^ . lath put between the 

» J ^ im \\\\\ \-p wires and attached to 

I ^ the spring stick, C, 

P ^ ^^^rgyr^-,^^^^ which holds the wires 

fy Ly ^ " -^ ^^^''^ ^y taut while the other 

laths are inserted from 
the end, and these are 
always put under the 
lower and over the up- 
per wires, thus crossing 
the wires. U show the 
end of spring stick and part of first lath held together with a 
hooked wire. D shows lath screen partly made. The laths should 
be long enough to reach nearly to the lower branches of the trees. 
A bunch of hay may be stuffed in at the top to keep the protector 
in place and keep it from rubbing the tree. The screens should be 
left on until the wires rust off. Tar or tarred paper should never 
be used in contact with the bark of apple trees. 

Protection by banking up the trunks 
of young trees about one foot, on the 
approach of winter, as shown in Fig. 58, 
is a good practice. It protects the graft 
and is a sufficient barrier against mice, 
unless there is a deep fall of snow. This 
is not a very laborious matter, for about 
three spadesf ul of soil is enough for each 
tree. When there is danger of mice 
working under the snow trod it down 
quite firmly around the trees. To guard 
against mice and rabbits when not oth- 
erwise protected, wash the stems with 
thin whitewash thickened with copperas 
and sulphur. If this is washed off by 
rains renew the wash as often as neces- 
sary. 

Protecting the trunks by box- 
ing them up and then filling the boxes 
with earth, as shown in Fig. 53, is a method that is well worthy of 
being adopted, especially by those who wish to grow apples in very 
severe locations. Such treatment protects the trunk from sun- 
scald, mice and rabbits, and also from urying winds, severe cold, 




Fig. b8.— Apple tree banked 
up for winter. 



84 



THE APPLE. 



and from sudden freezing and thawing, and commends itself in 
every way. The boxes may be kept filled with soil all the year 
around, but care should be taken that if the practice is to be dis- 
continued that they are not taken off on the approach of winter, 
but in the spring. In more favorable locations such treatment is 
unnecessary with hardy kinds, but even in such places the good 
effect will be apparent. 

Top-working.— By top-working is meant the grafting or bud- 
ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term is 
used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. It 
is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat tender 
kinds, such as the Wealthy, which, besides being somewhat tender 
and liable to sunscald, is weak in the stem and crotches. If this 
variety is grafted on the branches of the Virginia crab, which is a 
very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is formed that has 
much of the hardiness of that crab, but at the same time bears 
Wealthy apples. By this method we may 
increase the hardiness of trees to a consid- 
erable degree. Some varieties seem to be 
better adapted to one stock than to another. 
The Virginia crab is a stock that is hardy 
in every particular, and especially desir- 
able for top- working. It grows rapidly, 
makes a large tree, and will keep up in 
rapidity of growth with any of our larger 
apples. But most of the larger growing 
crabs make good stocks for top-working. 
The Transcendent crab may be successfully 
used for this purpose. When it is intended 
to grow an orchard by this method the 
stocks should be set in the spring, to be 
budded the following August, or should be 
grafted the following spring. Figure 59 
shows where the grafts should be made. If 
to be budded the buds should be inserted in 
about the same positions in the head of the 
tree as the grafts. 

Picking and Marketing.— In order 
to have apples keep well, or command the 
highest price, they must be hand-picked 
before they are fully ripe and handled very 
carefully. They should never be shaken 
from the trees, for although they may not Fig. 59 —Top-worked tree. 
show the bruises at once, yet they will ^' ^> "' ^J''"J''^- 

show plainly in a few days, and cause premature decay. This is 
especially true of the Duchess of Oldenburgh, and other varieties 
which, like it, easily become spotted. They should be carefully 
sorted into three grades — best, second b^^st, and culls. The latter 
grade had better be kept at home and fed to stock, or made into 




THE APPLE. 85 

vinegar. If to be shipped to a distance apples should be packed in 
clean, new barrels, into which they should be pressed so firmly 
that they cannot move. If packed loosely they are almost certain 
to arrive in market in a badly injured or worthless condition. A 
regular press is made for this purpose and is sold by all implement 
dealers. 

Some Important Things to Remember Are:— 

(1) If the roots of trees are frozen out of the ground, and 
thawed again in contact with air, the tree will probably die. 

(2) If frozen roots are well buried before thawing at all the 
tree will be uninjured. 

(3) Manure should never be placed ia contact with the roots 
of trees when they are set, but old pulverized earth compost 
answers well. 

(4) Trees that are received in a shrivelled condition may gen- 
erally be revived by burying, tops and all, with earth for a few 
days. 

(5) If trees are to be watered in dry weather it is very im- 
portant that they have a heavy covering of mulch, otherwise the 
earth will be crusted over, causing the water to dry out rapidly. 

(6) If watering is commenced it should be continued until 
rain comes, otherwise it may be worse than no watering at all. As 
a rule heavy mulching is better than watering. 

(7) A tree of small or medium size that is thrifty is much to 
be preferred, for transplanting, to one that is very large, but 
which will be checked in its growth by being moved. 

Diseases. — Blight. In order to be truly hardy and desirable 
for northern sections an apple tree should be hardy against fire 
blight as well as the weather. This is the blight that kills the 
growing wood in the summer. It is due to the growth of a very 
small microscopic plant termed Micrococcus amylovorua. It is much 
the same as the germs of disease which attack animals. These 
germs are very light, are thrown off by the plant and readily blow 
about. They grow in and destroy the tissues of the tree. It is a 
very insidious enemy, and as yet we know of no method of destroy- 
ing it or stopping its ravages. Some varieties, for reasons not 
known, are not subject to its attacks, while others are only slightly 
affected or only in occasional years. When it appears the best 
treatment is to remove and burn all the diseased parts as soon as 
may be, cutting considerably below where the disease appears. 
The only way to avoid it is to plant varieties that are not subject 
to its attacks. In pruning it should be borne in mind that the dis- 
ease may be carried from a diseased to a healthy tree by the prun- 
ing implement. 

Scab {Fudcladium) .—This is the disease that causes the scab or 
blotches that deface the skin of apple?; and destroys the leaves. 



86 



THE APPLE. 




Fig. 60 —Apple affected loith scab. 



It also attacks pears. Figure 60 shows the appearance of an apple 
affected with this disease. It not only injures the appearance 
of the fruit, and conse- 
quently its market value, 
but seems to dwarf its 
growth. It is only occa- 
sionally abundant in this 
state, and as a rule our 
hardy varieties are not in- 
jured by it. In case it be- 
comes abundant it may be 
prevented by spraying the 
trees with Bordeaux mix- 
ture, made as recommend- 
ed in the chapter on straw- 
berries, but diluted by 
adding twice as much 
water. Spray the trees 
with it as soon as the first 
leaves appear; again just 
after bloom, and a third time two or three weeks later. If rains 
are frequent in June a fourth spraying should be given in the 
latter part of that month. 

Insects.— Flat-headed Apple Tree Borer {Chrysohothris 
femorata). This borer is quite abundant in some sections, but 
generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work 
in trees that are newly transplanted, or weakened by some dis- 
ease, and makes its borings in the trunk and larger branches, often 
completely girdling them. It is the larva 
of a beetle which is oblong, flattish in 
form, and of a shining greenish-black 
color, about three-eighths of an inch 
long. The beetles emerge from the bor- 
ing in the trees in the early summer. 
They are very active in the middle of 
warm days, and may be found in the hot 
sunshine running up and down the 
trunk of the tree, whence they fly quick- 
ly if an attempt is made to catch them. 
They lay their eggs, which are yellow, 
under loose scales on the bark, or in 
cracks and crevices. The young soon 
hatch and eat their way through the 

■r^ ... r,-, . X. , ^ , bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the 

Fig. m .—Flat-headed apple , , ^ -4. -^ ii„ 

free borer; a, larva (borer); ^orer avvrosiches maturity it usually 

b, pupa: d, beetle somewhat bores into the more solid wood, and 

enlarged. finally out to the bark, where it changes 

into the beetle form. Figure 61 showa the borer in its several 

forms. 




THE APPLE. 



RiiiMBDiBs. — All trees should be examined early in autumn, 
when, if there are borers present, they may be detected by the 
dry appearance of the bark, by the borings, or by the exudation of 
sap, or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts 
should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. 
As a preventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to 
coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft-soap re- 
duced to the consistency of a thick paint with a solution of wash- 
ing soda, and if a little carbolic acid is added it will be even more 
repulsive to the beetles. This should be kept on the trees during 
the summer months, when this insect is injurious. 

New York Weevil (Ithycerus noveboraceimia) . This is a very 
large snout-beetle of gray color marked 
with black, about one-half inch long. 
It breeds in the oak, and is only abun- 
dant where there are oak groves near 
by. In such locations it often causes 
great injury by gnawing out the buds 
early in the season, and later by cutting 
off the young shoots, so that the trees 
are destroyed or seriously injured. It 
attacks cherries and plums as well as 
apples. It seems to do its work at night, 
or early in the morning, for it does not 
work much if at all during the day. 
Figure 62 shows this insect in its differ- 
ent stages of growth. 

Remedy. — The only known remedy 
for this pest is to jar the trees, when 
they curl up and fall to the ground, and 
then may readily be gathered and des- 
troyed. When the trees are badly in- 
fested they should be jarred once a day 
as long as any are found. They disap- 
pear about the first of July. 
Tent Caterpillar {CUsiocampa Americava). — The characteris- 
tics of this insect are readily seen in Pig. 63, which shows the 
caterpillar resting on the outside of the lent-like structure in 
which they live, and also a twig sustaining a bunch of eggs. The 
habit of this insect is about as follows : The eggs are laid on the 
smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first 
two weeks in July. Two or three hundred eggs are laid in each 
cluster, and they are firmly cemented together. These hatch out 
early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars 
soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of web across 
the nearest forks of the twigs, and this tent or nest is enlarged as 
more room is needed. It has holes in it through which the cater- 
pillars enter. The caterpillars retreat tc the nest at night and in 




Fig. &-l.—New York Weevil 
6, la?'va; . c, beetle. 



THE APPLE. 



stormy weather, and usually when not feeding. They generally 
come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after- 




FiG. iji.— Early stages of Orchard Tent Caterpillar, 
a. h. CaterjdUars resting on tent-like nest; c, ring 
of Like egg mass on twig; d, cocoon. 

noon to feed. They are very voracious, and soon strip the infested 
tree of its foliage. They change to moths (Fig. 64) in June and 
soon commence laying eggs. 

Remedy.— The tents 
are readily seen. They 
should be destroyed early 
in the season when the 
worms are within them. 
The egg masses are also 
readily seen against a 
cloudy sky, and are easily 
gathered and destroyed, ^ig. ^.-Moth of Orchard Tent Cutennllar. 
The foliage may be poisoned with Paris green, used at the rate of 
one pound to two hundred gallons of water. 

The forest tent cater; illar, which has caused so much damage 




THE APPLE. 



In this section some years, closely resembles the foregoing in ap- 
pearance, but it builds only a very thin web against the trunk or 
branches of the trees, and they march in every direction. At night 
they collect in groups on the trunks and branches of the trees, 
where they may be easily destroyed. The egg masses resemble 
those of the tent caterpillar, but as these are generally high up on 
forest trees it is impracticable to gather and destroy them. The 
best remedy is to poison the infested trees with Paris green, as 
recommended for the tent caterpillar. 

Climbing Cut- Worm {Agrotis sp).— When the foliage or budjs 
are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cut- 
worms should be searched for. They will be found buried in the 
ground near the base of the trees. They are closely allied to and 
resemble the common cut-worms, so well known to gardeners, and 
occasionally do much damage. They may be destroyed by spray- 
ing the foliage as recommended for the tent caterpillar and by 
jarring the trees after dark, having first spread sheets on the 
ground. Putting a cone-shaped piece of zinc or tin around the 
tree, so that they cannot gain a foothold on it, will keep them off 
the trees. 

Codling Moth {Garpocapsa pomonella). — Figure 65 plainly 
shows the work of this pest. It is the common cause of wormy 

apples, and causes the 
infested fruit to ripen 
prematurely and fall to 
the ground. The moths 
deposit their eggs in 
the calyx or eye of the 
apple just as the blos- 
soms fall. On hatching 
the worm eats into the 
fruit, where it lives un- 
til it is ready to change 
to the moth stage, when 
it leaves the fruit and 
spins a cocoon in which 
it undergoes its change. 
There are several 
broods in a season. The 
worms that are in the 
late apple leave them 
in the winter and find 
injured by places to spin their co- 
wo?-m: 6, calyx, end where the' larva enfered; (.QQ^^g near by, often be- 
e. larva (worm) escaping; /, moth at rest; g, . ,^^^„ -., ^ v,r.r.^c ^ ^a 
same with wings spread; d, chrysalis; i, co-^^een tne noops ana 
cooti. staves of the barrels 

holding the fruit. 
Remedies.— The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and 
destroyed. Keeping hogs in an orchard is very beneficial. If 




Pig 



■Codling Moth 



90 



THE APPLE. 



bands of burlap, or even paper, six inches wide, are fastened 
around the trunks not later tban the first of June, the worms and 
chrysalides of this moth will be found under them and may be 
easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in 
ten days until the last of August. 

The most common way of protecting against this insect is by 
spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the apples 
stand upright, witli Pdris green and water, at the rate of one 
pound to two hundred gallons. When the trees are sprayed to 
prevent scab the Paris green may be added to the Bordeax mix- 
ture at the rate of one pound to two hundred gallons of the mixture. 
Fall Web-Worm {Ryphantria textor). — This resembles the or- 
dinary tent caterpillar in having a tent, but is smaller in size. It 
appears in the late summer and fall. It is quickly seen and easily 
destroyed by cutting off the twig on which the web is found and 
destroying the caterpillars, or by spraying the foliage with Paris 
green, as recommended for tent caterpillar. 

Apple Curculio {Anthon.omus quadrigibbus) . This is a snout- 
beetle which cuts small holes 
in fruit as it feeds, and also as 
a place for its eggs. The lat- 
ter soon hatch a small grub, 
about one-half inch long. The 
special injury to the fruit 
comes from the hard knots 
that form around the hole, 
which makes the apples 
gnarled and of poor quality. 
(See Pigs. 66 and 67.) 

Remedy.— This insect 
breeds mostly in the wild Fig. ^ 
haws and wild crab apples, s^^^}' 
and destroying these generally results in lessening the damage to 

the apples in their vicin- 
ity. The windfalls should 
be destroyed, and pastur- 
ing hogs in the orchard is 
probably the easiest way 
to accomplish it. Spray- 
ing the fruit with Paris 
green and water, as recom- 
mended for the tent cater- 
pillar, is a satisfactory 
remedy and may be usod 
Fig. 67 --Apple curculio. a. Pupa stage; to supplement the other 
h. Larva norm. The hair lines indicate _„_ -..^ _ ..^ ^, 
the natural size. remedies mentioned. 




-Apple Curculio; a, natural 
b and c, the beetle much enlarged. 




THE APPLE. 



91 



Apple Leaf Lice {Aphis mali).— The leaves of the apple are 
frequently attacked by lice, which by sucking the sap cause the 
leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearance. They 

work almost entire- 
ly on the lower side 
of the leaf and are 
most abundant on 
the new and tender 
growth. Similar 
lice attack the foli- 
age of plum, currant 
and other plants. 
The eggs of these 
lice are very small 
but shiny black in 
color, and may be 
Fig. QS— Apple Leaf Lice, showing various stages found on the twigs 




of growth. The straight lines indicate natural size. 



of apple and other 



trees during the winter. They hatch out early in the spring and 
multiply with great rapidity. (Fig. 68.) 

Remedies.— The lice should be destroyed early in the spring 
before they have become numerous. The eggs hatch out about the 
time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear they 
should be sprayed with strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or 
tobacco water; the latter made by boiling one pound of rough 
stems or leaves in a gallon of water ; wiU be very effective against 
the young lice. Kerosene emulsion is easily made, cheap and very 
effective. It should be sprayed on the infested trees. If the lice 
are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced 
the wolrk will have to be repeated several times. Kerosene emul- 
sion made as follows : 

Kerosene Emulsion.— Soft soap, one quart, or one-fourth pound 
of hard soap ; two quarts hot water ; one pint kerosene. Stir until 
all are permanently mixed, and then add water until the kerosene 
forms one-fifteenth of the whole compound. A good way to make 
the emulsion permanent is to pump the mixture back into the re- 
ceptacle several times. 

There are many other insects that occasionally injure the 
apple. For those that eat the leaves Paris green and water is 
generally the best remedy, and it may be used as strong as one 
pound to one hundred gallons of water without injury to foliage, 
but generally one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water 
is considered about the right proportion. 

Varieties.— The following list of varieties includes only the 
hardiest kinds and those that are generally successful in the loca- 
tion for which they are recommended, and that can be readily ob- 
tained from nurserymen. In very favorable locations less hardy 
varieties may be profitable, but it will be best for the inexperi- 
enced planter in severe climates to try only the hardiest kinds. 



92 THE APPLE. 

In selecting varieties it should always oe dome m mmd that 
the experience of reliable and progressive tree growers of a neigh- 
borhood will indicate what varieties will succeed in that particular 
location far better than any list one is apt to receive from those 
not acquainted with the local peculiarities of climate and soil. 

In planting do not put in many varieties, and especially avoid 
usicg many of those that are untried, or new seedlirgs. These 
latter often sell at high prices, and are generally of doubtful value 
and disappointing in results. Past experience would seem to show 
that not one in fifty of new seedling apples introduced are worth 
growing. If one wants to and can afford to experiment, it is a good 
plan to try new fruits, for it is a very interesting pursuit, but at 
the same time such work can and is being done in a much more 
thorough way by the Experiment Station. 

Russian Apples.— Under this head is mcludea several Hun- 
dred varieties of apples that have been introduced into this coun- 
try from Russia. They vary wonderfully in form, size and quality 
of fruit, and in hardiness of tree. All of them have not been tried 
here long enough to determine their value, but enough has been 
learned to say that among them are many so tender, or susceptible 
to blight, as to be worthless for the colder portions of the United 
States. Others are of too poor quality, while others are too long 
in coming into bearing. But some of them have shown wonderful 
hardiness, productiveness and freedom from blight, so that they 
are now being more largely planted by the most intelligent apple 
growers of the North than any other kinds. These few Russian 
apples have proven to be much superior to the varieties in the old 
lists. In this connection it should be remembered that the apple 
known as Duchess of Oldenburg has been conclusively shown to be 
a Russian variety. Among the Russian apples are varieties 
adapted to eveiy season, and the near future will undoubtedly 
warrant a more liberal selection of them than is here indicated. 

Summer Varieties.— Tetofskt (Ruasian). Fruit is medium 
size, yellow, and of a sprightly, agreeable acid quality. Ripe early 
in August and quickly perishable. The tree is a close, very up- 
right grower, and is doing well over a large portion of the North- 
west. More desirab e for home garden than for market. 

Yellow Transparent (i2?mia7/).— A fine, early, yellow sum- 
mer apple of extra quality, good size and productive. It is faJrly 
hardy against climatic changes, but is very liable to blight, and 
should not be planted wherethis disease is prevalent. Bears young. 

Late Summer and Early Autumn Varieties.— Olden- 
burg, OH Duchess, or Duchess of Oldi^nburg (Etctisiau) . The 
first name is now recognized as ofiicial. The most popular late 
summer or early autumn apple, and the standard of hardiness as 
far north as Minneapolis. Of large size and beautifully colored ; 
rather acid. It comes into bearing very young, and is very pro- 
ductive. Season: August and September. Excellent for cooking 
in a green state or when oipe. 



THE APPLE. 



93 



BoROViNKA (Russian).— Closely resembles the Oldenburg in 
every particular, except that it is said to be a little less acid and a 
better keeper. 

Chablamofi' (Busidan). ~la cnlo'- of fruit resembling the Olden- 
burg, but oblong in form, of good size and quality, season a little 
later than Oldenburg, and the tree about as hardy. 

LoNGFiBLD {Russian).— K small, lighL colored, pretty desert 
apple, of extra good quality, that with ordinary care will keep un- 
til January. It bears young and regularly. It does best when top- 
worked on hardy crab-stocks, and should generally be grown in- 
that way. 

Recumbent, also called Liebt (iiwssiaw).— Without doubt the 
hardiest of the well-tested varieties. The tree is very spreading 
in habit, and is considerably hardier than the Oldenburg. A rather 
early and regular bearer and productive. It seldom if ever 
blights severely, the blighting part being confined to the new 
growth. The fruit is large and colored much like the Oldenburg ; 
rather sour but excellent for cooking, and not to be despised for 
table use, when fully ripe. Season, late autumn and early winter 
as far north as Minneapolis, but may be kept until March by a 
little extra care. 

Hibernal (i2?mian).— As it is generally grown practically the 
same as Recumbent. 

Mac Mahon White.— A very handsome, very large, very pro- 
ductive light green apple of good quality. The tree is fairly pro- 
ductive and nearly hardy in Southern Minnesota and Northern 
Iowa; highly esteemed for planting in very favorable locations., 
Originated in Wisconsin. 

Wealthy.— A beautiful red apple of extra quality and quite 
hardy ; it occasionally blights badly, but is wonderfully productive 
in good locations. It bears very young and has great recuperative 
powers. If killed back to the ground it seldom fails to sprout from 
the root, and these sprouts generally produce remunerative crops 
of fruit. In the bushy form thus made the trees often fruit for 
many years. It does best, however, when top-grafted on the 
branches of strong growing crabs. Season, late autumn and early 
winter, and it may be kept until spring by special care. Origin- 
ated in Minnesota. 

Supplementary List of Apples.— The following varieties 
have been tried to a limited extent in northern sections and are of 
great promise : 

Breskovka {Russian). --Resembles the Yellow Transparent in 
fruit, though somewhat later in ripening. It has been tried only 
in a limited way in Minnesota, but it is quite free from blight ; a 
full and regular bearer and much hardier in tree than the Yellow 
Transparent, which it will probably supplant when better known. 
Trees of this kind are very scarce. 

Thaler, or Charlottenthaler (Russian). — Much like the 



94 THE APPi^x:.. 

Yellow Transparent and of about the same season, but a much 
better tree ; very productive. 

Blushed Calville {Russian). — A fine summer apple resem- 
bling the Yellow Transparent in fruit, but the tree is hardier and 
not subject to blight. 

Anisim (Swss^a?i).— An early winter apple of extra nice table 
quality; fruit medium in size; tree extra hardy and a strong 
grower. This variety has generally been sent out under the name 
of Good Peasant. It is not subject to blight and seldom sun-scalds. 

Crab Apples.— Among these are some delicious little dessert 
apples, while others are only valuable for cooking. Some are very 
hardy and resist blight, while others are quite tender, or perhaps 
blight badly. 

Early Strawberry. — Tree very hardy, of spreading growth, 
bearing young and heavily ; fruit tender and delicious, but quickly 
perishable. It seldom blights severely. 

Whitney No. 20.— Tree much hardier than the Oldenburg, 
and generally very productive ; of very close, upright habit. Fruit 
of large size, handsomely striped with red, of excellent dessert 
quality. It seldom blights badly. 

Minnesota. -Tree quite hardy, but rather a shy bearer when 
young. Fruit large, yellow ; of fine table quality, and keeps until 
January. It is highly thought of by those who are growing it in 
Southern Minnesota and Northern Iowa. It seldom blights. 

Transcend ANT.— Very hardy; a strong grower and very pro- 
ductive; it often blights severely. Fruit ripens in September, and 
is well known. 

Martha. —Tree very hardy, a fine, thrifty grower and a heavy 
bearer. It seldom blights. Fruit large and of a rich red color; of 
fine quality for cooking. Ripens in September and will keep until 
December. Originated in Minnesota. 

Virginia.— Tree very hardy and free from blight; a strong 
grower. It probably will stand more adverse conditions than any 
other apple known. Fruit as large or larger than Transcendant, 
and more completely covered with red. Excellent for jellies or 
preserves. Ripens in September and keeps for two months. Per- 
haps the best variety for top-grafting with the larger kinds of 
apples. 

Tonka. — Tree very hardy, of upright growth, quite free from 
blight and very productive. Fruit about the size of the Trans- 
cendant but flat; quite acid. Season, October. Excellent for 
cooking. Originated in Minnesota. 

Pride of Minneapolis.— Tree very hardy, a good gi-ower, pro- 
ductive and quite free from blight. Fruit of green color, medium 
size, quite acid. Ripens late and keeps into winter. Excellent for 
jellies. Were it not for its unattractive color this would be one of 
the most profitable crabs to grow for market as it is immensely 
productive. Not generally offered by nurserymen. Originated in 
Minnesota. 



CHAPTER XI. 



THE PLUM. 



fjtt HE plum is one of the most valuable of our cultivated fruits. 
n^ In point of hardiness it is surpassed by none other. Some 
varieties of good quality are hardy as far north as Winni- 
peg. It is valuable for cooking or eating uncooked. It should be 
more generally grown, and more attention should be paid to get- 
ting varieties that ■will prolong the season, which will last for at 
least six weeks if a proper selection is made of the kinds now 
offered by nurserymen at reasonable figures. There are four 
species of the plum which are of interest to us in this section: 

(1) Prunus domestical is a native of Europe, and from it have 
come the varieties of plum commonly cultivated in the Eastern 
States and in California, but varieties of it generally cultivated in 
these sections are not hardy here. There are, however, a number 
of varieties of this species which have been introduced from Rus- 
sia and promise to be of some value here. 

(2) Prunus Americana, is the plum found in our woods in its 
wild state. It is far superior to the original form of the preced- 
ing species, and it is very proba,ble that under cultivation many 
very desirable varieties will be developed, which will be hardy 
enough for this section^ Already selections have been made from 
it by our nurserymen which are vastly superior to the kinds ordi- 
narily found in the woods. These vary much in size, form, quality 
and color. Some are very nice dessert fruit, some have free-stones, 
T^hile generally they have cling-stones. This is the most promising 
species for this section. 

There are two forms of this. One is rather a small tree with 
black twigs and close head, having small, very astringent purplish 
fruit. The other is more open in its habit, makes a larger tree, and 
has rather large fruit colored with red and yellow. It is to this 
latter form that we must look for the best varieties for cultivation. 

The two other species of interest lo us are (3) Prunus hortulana 
and (4) Prunus angustifjolia.- These species are seldom found north 
of Central Iowa. Many of them are not hardy enough for North- 
ern Iowa, but some varieties of it are hardy as far north as St. 

95 



96 



THE PLUM. 



Paul, although, as a rule, they do not fruit well so far north. All 
these species readily hybridize together. 

Propagation. — The plum does not come true from seed, al- 
though there are some varieties which nearly reproduce themselves 
in this way. However, the seed is sown in order to produce new 
varieties, and the stocks into which the named kinds are budded 
or grafted. If the seed is allowed to get very dry before planting 
it will lie in the ground one year before it will start ; but if it is 
buried at once after separating it from the flesh it wil], come up the 
following spring. Seedlings bear in from three to five years from 
seed. They are generally large enough to graft upon when one 
year old, and if given plenty of room, in rich soil, are large enough 
to be budded the first year from seed. 

Nurserymen generally offer plants that are grafted or budded. 
It matters not by which method they are grown, as long as the root 
on which they are worked is hardy. For this purpose native seed- 
lings are most desirable and should be used when possible, but 
Angustifolia and Hortulana stocks do very well if planted pretty 
deep. A European form of the plum called Myrobolari is frequently 
used by nurserymen for stocks, but its use in this section is to be 
discouraged, as it does not stand well here. If plums are to be 
grafted the work should be done very early in the spring, even 
before the frost is out of the ground. 

Thrifty Suckers make very desirable trees when grown for 
a year or two in the nursery. They should be taken up with a 
short piece of the main root 
from which they grew (Fig. 
69). If simply pulled up they 
are often of little value. If 
the smaller roots around the 
trees are cut while they are 
dormant, as in the early fall 
or early spring, they will read- 
ily sprout. Most varieties of 
the plum will grow from 
pieces of the root made Into 
cuttings about six inches long 
in the fall of the year and 
planted out in spring. Such 
cuttings should be buried in 
the ground until planted out. 
One advantage of having trees 
that are grown from suckers 
or cuttings is that they are on 
their own roots and conse- 
quently any suckers from 
them will be true to name, 
while suckers from grafted or 
budded trees are of little if 
any value. 




Fig. 69.— Plum iprouf properly taken 
up ivith a piece of the root frotn 
wMoh it grew. 



THE PLUM. 97 

Profits ot Cultivation.— In good locations this fruit may be 
grown at considerable profit. Occasionally the numerous wild 
plums somewhat affect the demand for the cultivated kinds, but 
wild plums are growing scarcer with each succeeding year, and the 
consumers already begin to discriminate between the wild and the 
cultivated varieties, and are willing to pay more for the latter. No 
one should be contented to plant with the common wild kinds when 
varieties so very much better can be obtained at a moderate price. 

Ijocation.— The best location for the plum is on high land, 
sloping to the north and having a retentive soil, and protected from 
the east winds, as the storms from this direction are most injurious 
at blooming time. It will, however, grow and fruit abundantly in 
almost any situation. It will stand much neglect, but responds 
quickly to good cultivation, which it must have to be profitable. 

Planting.— The trees may be set out either in the fall or 
spring of the year, but spring setting is most desirable. If planted 
in autumn the work should be done by the middle of October, and 
the soil watered if dry. The best trees are those which are two 
years from the graft or bud and grown on native seedling stocks. 
Thrifty suckers also make good plants if well rooted. The trees 
should be planted about ten feet apart in rows, leaving sufiQcient 
distance between them to allow for a free circulation of air. It is 
preferable to plant in rows running north and south, and they 
should not be nearer together than twenty-four feet. The same 
general directions given for planting the apple will apply here. 

Cultivation.— Land around the trees should be thoroughly 
cultivated for the first three years. If thorough cultivation cannot 
be given the trees should be heavily mulched, and this is by far the 
best treatment for them when they become old. 

Renewing Old Trees.— Plum trees are inclined to over-bear 
and to exhaust themselves, after which they often die out or the 
fruit becomes very small and of poor quality. On that account 
manuring should be resorted to when the trees fail to make a satis- 
factory growth. Quite frequently as the trees get old the fruiting 
branches become very long and bare with all the fruit near their 
extremities. In such shape they are liable to split down in the 
crotches. When trees get into this condition the longer branches 
should be shortened back (as shown in Fig. 70), and some care 
taken in removing or shortening the suckers that will start so as to 
make a good top to the tree. Where a crotch is found cracked it is 
a good plan to hold it in place, driving a wire nail through it far 
enough so that its end can be turned over. This will often affect a 
permanent cure. 

Pruning.— The notes on time and manner of pruning given in 
the chapter on the apple will apply here. Plum trees should be 
pruned so as to allow the branches to start out about two feet 
from the ground. The trunks of plum trees do not sun-scald read- 
ily, but if long stems are exposed the growth on the south side is 



y» THE PLUM. 

weakest and the trees are very liable to become onesided. Ex- 
posed trunks are also liable to a fatal gumming disease. 

Mixing Varieties.— Some varieties of the plum have flowers 
which seem to be impotent to their own pollen, that is they are not 
fruitful when growing away from other varieties of the plum. 
Then again other varieties, while seemingly potent to their own 
pollen, fruit much more abundantly if they are poUenized with 
some other variety. On this account it is always desirable to 
plant more than one variety of the plum, and even to mix the vari- 




,Vi!J:S4^t;g- 



Fig. lO.—Eeneu'ing an old plum tree, 
shortened in to encourage compact fo 
tohere pruning has been done. 



The long branches have been 
"arm. The figures 1 indicate 



eties together by planting them alternately in the rows. Some 
varieties which are entirely unfruitful when growing alone are 
very productive when grown by the side of some other kind having 
strong pollen. 

Marketing.— The rule of never sending fruit to market in 
rough, unsightly or unusual packages, holds well here. Plums 
should never be marketed in rough baskets, tubs or boxes, as is 
often practiced, but in some of the popular commercial fruit pack- 
ages, which can now be obtained at very low prices. 



THE PLUM. 



99 



Varieties.— The varieties mentioned below ripen about in the 
order in which they are described. They are all good fruits and 
desirable. By selecting three or four kinds the season of fruiting 
may be made a very long one. There are a number of other vari- 
etits that are very good, and several untried ones said to be better 
than any mentioned, but those referred to have been tried for a 
considerable time. 

Cheney.— A very early plum of largest size and excellent qual- 
ity. Tree, a very strong grower, hardy and productive. This 
variety flowers very early, and on this account is more liable to 
have its blossoms injured by late frosts than some others. 

Forest Garden.— An early plum of 
high flavor and fair size, but its skin is 
rather thick and astringent. Tree a strong 
grower and fruitful. 

Wolf. — A fiee-stone plum of large size 
and excellent quality ; pit very small. Tree 
a good grower, hardy and fruitful. 

RoLLiNGSTONE. — A large plum of excel- 
lent quality. Tree vigorous, hardy, with 
very crooked branches. Season, second 
early. In srme location a heavy bearer. fig. n.-Section through 

Weaver.— A valuable late large plum Forest Garden plum. 
of good quality, having its pit free from the flesh. Skin not astrin- 
gent. Tree a strong grower, very hardy and fruitful. 






Fig. ^2..— Section through 
Weaver plum. 



Pig. 73. — Section through 
Be Soto plum. 



DisSoTO.— A late variety of medium size and good quality. 
Tree a vigorous, good grower. Thought by many to be the most 
reliable of our native plums. 

Wtant.— A new variety which is reported on highest authority 
as being of the best quality. It has been growing at the Minnesota 
Experiment Station for two years and appears to be hardy. 



100 



THE PLUM. 



Diseases of the Plum.— Plum Pockets.— This is a name 
givea to certaia peculiar hollow deformities which occasionally 
take the place of the plums (see Pig. 74). They consist merely of 
a thin shell with no evi- 
dence whatever of seed. 
Some seasons this dis- 
ease is very abundant, 
and then for a number 
of years it may scarce 
appear at all. It is due 
to the presence of a 
parasitic fungus (Taph- 
rina pmiyii) which at- 
tacks the young fruit, 
and by growing within 
it causes the peculiar 
development which fin- 
ally results in the for- 
mation of the so-called 
pocket. The only 
course of treatment 
which can be recom- 
mended is that of re- 
moving and destroying 
the pockets before they 
reach maturity. It will 
sometimes be found 
that a single tree will 
be troubled with this 
fungus for a series of 
years, and it will not 
spread much. When 
this is the case such 
trees should be des- 
troyed, as they are FiG.7i.— Plum ])ockeffi, or diseased j^lxms. 
likely to be centers of 

infection. Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others. 
Black-knot, or Wart of the Plum, is the common name of 
the fungus disease of this tree which manifests itself by knot-like 
or wart-like growths appearing on the smaller limbs as well as on 
the larger branches, and sometimes even on the trunk (see Fig. 75). 
In sections of the country where rnmits domestica is grown this is 
one of the most serious obstacles to successful cultivation of the 
plum. Our native plums are not often destroyed by it, but it 
sometimes causes serious injury to them. This knot-like growth is 
spongy and of a black color. Upon examining it with a microscope 
it is found that the surface has many little cavities which contain 
the spores by which the disease spreads. It is probable that the 




THE PLUM. 



101 



spores escape from the knots during the late winter or early spring 

months. „ ^ 

Eemedy.—Upon their first appear- 
ance these swellings should be removed 
and burned, if they are on the smaller 
branches where it is practicable to cut 
them off; if on the trunk or larger 
branches where they cannot be cut out 
they should be painted with a paste 
made of yellow ochre and linseed oil, 
using care to keep the oil away from 
the healthy bark ; where trees are very 
badly infested they should be removed 
entirely. This same disease also grows 
in the wild black and choke cherries, 
and if abundant on them their removal 
will make the extermination of the dis- 
ease more easy. 

Other Diseases.— There are sev- 
eral other fungus diseases which occa- 
sionally injure the plum. One of them 
{Monilia fructigena) causes the fruit to 
rot, while another produces round, dry, 
scabby spots on the skin. Probably the 
best treatment where these are abun- 
dant is to spray the fruit with Bordeaux 
mixture as soon as it is well formed, 
and again when about half grown. For 
recipe for making Bordeaux mixture 
see chapter on the strawberry. 

Insects.— Plum Curculio.— This is 
the insect which causes the plums to 
prematurely ripen and drop to the 
ground. It is not nearly so destructive 
to our native plums as to those of the 
Primus domestica tribe. The latter are 
often so badly infested that none of the 
fruit comes to full maturity. While our 
native plums are stung just as much by 
the curculio as the others, but few of the eggs of the curculio de- 
velop into the grub. This insect is a small, ^^'^^Sh, greyish ov 
blackish beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long with a black, shin- 
ing lump on the middle of each wing, and behind this a more or 
less distinct band of a dull yellow color, with some whitish marks 
about the middle (see Fig. 76). The snout is ^-fther short The 
female lays her eggs in the young ^^een fruit shortly after it is 
formed. After laying the egg she cuts a circle round it to Prevent 
the part in which the egg is laid from growing (see Fig. 77). ihe 
egg hatches in a few days and the larva works around the outside 




Pig. Ih.— Black Jcnot, or ivart 
oil ptum wood. 



102 



THE PLUM. 




of the stone. This causes the fruit to become diseased and it falls 
prematurely to the ground. Within the plum the growth of the 
larva is completed. It then goes into the ground and transforms 
to the beetle and soon goes to the surface and escapes. 

Bemedy.—WhexL the curculio gets alarmed it draws itself to- 
gether and falls to the ground. Advantages are taken of this 
peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under the 
trees and the tree and its branches are suddenly jarred, when the 
beetles, which fall on the 
sheet, may be gathered up 
and destroyed. As it is im- 
portant to catch as many 
beetles as possible before any 
mischief has been done, jar- 
ring should begin while the 
tree is in blossom, and be con- 
tinued daily morning and 
evening, if the insects are 
abundant, for three or four 
weeks, or until they become 
very scarce. 

Another remedy which is 
less laborious and has been 
found very effectual is to 
spray the plums as soon as the 
fruit is formed with Paris 
green in the proportion of one 
pound to two hundred gallons 
of water, and repeating the application at intervals of a week or 
ten days until the curculios disappear. If the weather is very 

showery three sprayings 
may be necessary, but gen- 
erally two is sufficient. It 
will be found that where 
hecs with their broods of 
chickens are inclosed with- 
in the plum orchard that 
they will devour a large 
number of the larva of the 
curculio. If hogs are kept 
in the same inclosure as 
the plum trees they will 
pick up the fallen fruit 
and so destroy a great 
Fig. 77.— «, Pari of/pluin shmving egg-pnnc- many of the larva. 

ture, and locdiinn, of egg. from abore\ _, nr^rtn.-vo TVio 

b, 6ectiA)n through egg-puhctare, showing r'LUM (jtODGEk. ine 

egg- plum gouger is a snout- 

beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily distinguished 
from it by a little careful examination, it is about five-sixteenth 



Fig. 7Q.—Plum Curculio {Conotrache- 
lus nenuphar.) a, represents the 
tvorm,; b, the pu2)a; c, the perfect 
beetle; d, a 2}l"ni showing the punc- 
ture /nade in deposing the egg, and 
the crescent cut. The hair-lines just 
below a and c, and to the left side of 
b, indicate the natural size. 




THE PLUM. 103 

of an inch long. The head and wing cases are brown with a leaden 
grey tinge, the latter with whitish and black spots scattered irreg- 
ularly over their surface. It appears in the spring about the same 
time as the curculio, and it causes the plums to drop in much the 
same way as the curculio, but instead of working around the stone 
it eats through the soft shell and lives within the stone, where it 
undergoes its changes and emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of 
the plum gouger bore cylindrical holes in the fruit or food. These 
cause the fruit to become knotty and worthless, but it does not 
prevent their remaining on the tree until maturity. This insect 
does not cut a flat or half circle around the hole in which the egg is 
placed, as is characteristic of the curculio. The remedies recom- 
mended for the curculio are the best for preventing the work of 
this insect. 

Aphis, or Leaf Lice.— These are often abundant upon the 
native plums. They live upon the under side of the leaves ; are 
generally not observed until they are very abundant, and increase 
with great rapidity. They resemble very much the apple aphis 
before described, and the same remedies will be applicable here. 
It is of the utmost importance that treatment be commenced early. 
As a rule, if they are abundant during the summer their presence 
could easily have been detected early in the spring when they were 
not numerous, and when it would have been but a small matter to 
destroy them. 

There are a number of other insects that injure the plum, but 
they have been referred to under the head of insects injurious to 
the apple. 



CHAPTER Xn. 



THE CHERRY. 



j^tilHE species from which the commonly cultivated cherry is 
<^ derived was probably the Prunus cerama, of Europe and 
Asia. It is not indigenous to this country. There are two 
distinct groups of this fruit. The first comprises those kinds of a 
strong, upward, straight growth, pyramidal form, and sweet or 
bitter but not sour fruit. The second group has sour fruit, and 
either a spreading or upright habit, and the young branches are 
crooked. This group is divided into two classes, which were for- 
merly termed Morrellos and Dukes, although the reason for this 
distinction has been largely done away with by their becoming 
intermingled by crossing. To this latter group belong all the vari- 
eties that can be successfully grown north of what might be called 
the "peach belt", and therefore those that are of interest to grow- 
ers in such latitude. 

Historical.— Until the importation of East European varieties 
of cherries there was little encouragement for any one to plant this 
fruit in the colder sections of the West. The hardiest "West Euro- 
pean varieties, such as the Early Richmond and English Morello, 
are not reliable in the North, though after lasting well for a few 
years. The East European kinds, which are often referred to as 
the Russian cherries, while as yet tried for but a short time, give 
promise of being an important addition to the list of cultivated 
fruits for all northern regions. At present they can be bought of 
but few nurserymen, but as they are easy to propagate it will not 
be long before they can be readily and cheaply obtained. 

Soil and Location. — The best soil lor the cherry is one that 
is drier than is desirable for most other fruits ; a sandy or gravelly 
loam, with porous subsoil, is best. In wet places, or ou water- 
soaked subsoils, it soon perishes. The best locations aie on high 
land, but a rise of even a few feet above the surrounding country 
is of great advantage 

Propagation - The cherry does not come true from seed, 
though seedlings are often of vety good quality Seedlings are 



THE CHEBBT. 



105 



generally used as stocks on which to work the named varieties. 
The pits (seed) should be managed as recommended for plum pits. 
Named varieties of the cherry are propagated by budding, graft- 
ing, and from suckers. Budding and grafting are generally done 
on either of two kinds of seedling stocks, called Mazzard and Mah- 
aleb, which are imported from France. These are not as hardy as 
is desired, and in fact are too tender to be left without protection 
in winter, though they may last well if protected by deep plant- 
ing. Seedling bird cherry {Prunus Pmnsylvanica) is the best for 
stock purposes. Recent experiments with the sand cherry {Prunn$ 
Pumila) seems to indicate that it may be useful for this purpose by 
budding, but not by root-grafting. 




Fig. 78.— Showing fruit of Early Morello Cherry. 

Suckers.— Most of the cultivated kinds that are valuable for 
northern sections sucker readily if they are cut back to the surface 
of the ground, but, of course, where such practice is attempted the 
trees must be on their own roots, or the suckers will not be like 
them. This method of propagation is seldom practiced in this 
country, but may readily be followed wherever there are old trees 
on their own roots. It is the method generally preferred in Russia, 
and will undoubtedly prove best adapted for severe locations here. 

Cuttings.— A few of the various cherries may be grown from 
cuttings, but this method is very uncertain and requires much 
careful management. On this account it is seldom practiced. 

Planting.— The varieties of cherries that are hardy in this 
section do not make large trees, but are q^:;ite dwarf and bushy in 
habit, and on this account they may be planted quite close to- 



106 



THE CHERRY. 



gether. It is generally best to plant about eight feet apart, in rows 
fifteen feet apart. Most of the plants sent out are budded or 
grafted on tender roots, as they are most easily obtained. These 
may easily be winter-killed if exposed and cause the death of a 
tree which might otherwise be perfectly hardy. On this account 
the roots should be planted from four to six inches deeper than 
they grew in the nursery, to afford them the protection of the soil. 
Besides this, when planted deep the scion sends out roots, and 
when a tree is thus on its own roots its powers of resisting adverse 
conditions is greatest. 

Cultivation.— The cultivation suggested for the plum applies 
here. It is important also to mulch the trees when on exceedingly 
dry soils, but this is not so necessary as in case of the plum, since 
they do well on much drier land. 




Fig, 1^.— Cherry tree of good form. 

Pruning.— The cherry needs only enough pruning to keep the 
tree in shape, and but very little is required to accomplish that. 
In Russia it is grown in bush form, and when it becomes too old to 
bear profitably the older parts are cut away and new sprouts take 
their places. The important point to remember in connection with 
this, as well as all stone fruits, is that they should be trained to 
branch low. 

Insects and Diseases.— The insects and diseases which 
affect the cherry are about the same as those that injure the plum, 



THE CHERRY. 107 

and the same remedies are applicable here. But the cherry may- 
be injured by several insects that injure the apple, and they will be 
found referred to in the chapter on that fruit. 

Varieties.— The varieties which have proven most hardy thus 
far are Early Morello (23 Orel), Sklanka, Bessarabian (No. 62), 
Cuse d' Ostheim ; but there are several others that are standing 
well and may prove valuable. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



BUDDING. 



C|| N its broad sense the term grafting, or graftage, includes all 
^ there is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree 

is growing. But as generally used budding applies to the 
process by which a bud of the season is removed from its parent 
plant and induced to unite with and grow upon some other pl::nt 
congenial to it. In the northern states it is commonly practiced 
to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and apples and pears, 
all of which are readily increased in this way. The varieties of 
some ornamental trees and plants may be propagated by budding, 
as for instance some varieties of elm, maple, poplar and birch. 
Most trees that graft readily will bud as 
readily, while others that are very difiScult 
to graft will bud very easily. Budding is 
rather a simpler operation than grafting, 
and easier for the beginner to perform suc- 
cessfully. 

The word "stock" is used to designate 
the plant into which the bud is inserted, 
and for success it must be of the same or 
some nearly allied species. Stocks are gen- 
erally grown from seed and the buds are in- 
serted in them before they are five years 
old, and as near the ground as may be. But 
budding may be done very successfully on 
any growing branch or stem where the bark 
is not too hard and stiff to bend easily. It 
is often used to change the bearing quali- 
ties of fruit trees of small or medium size. 

Bud-stick is the name given to the 
shoots from which the buds are taken. It 
is also referred to as the scion, but the scion 
proper is the piece which is inserted in the 
stock. In Fig. 80 is shown at D' a bud-stick 
prepared for use by cutting off all but 
about one-half inch of the stock of the leaf, 
which part is left for a handle. 




Fig. 



108 



^.—Showiug Bud 
Sticks. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 109 

» 

Time for Budding.— In a general way, budding may be 
done at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds are 
sufQciently matured on the new growth of the season. The proper 
time will be influenced by the kind of stock used, the season, and 
sometimes by attacks of insects and diseases. For instance, the 
native plum is generally budded to best advantage about the tenth 
of August, but should the stocks be attacked by some insect or dis- 
ease that seriously injures the foliage in the latter part of July the 
growth of the stocks will soon be checked, and the work must be 
performed at once or not at all. A period of severe drouth may 
check growth, and in a similar way make early budding necessary. 
If the stocks are growing very fast it is often best to delay the 
operation until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else 
its rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable 
pruning of the stocks is necessary to make a place for the bud it 
should be done at least two weeks before budding is commenced, 
for the heavy pruning of any plant when it is in active growth re- 
sults in a serious check to the growth, and if done just when the 
buds are inserted it may prevent the success of the operation. The 
ordinary season for budding in the northern states is from the 
middle of July to the first of September, and the earliness or late- 
ness at which a variety is most successfully budded depends on the 
condition of growth. The stocks that stop growing early in the 
season are budded early, and those that grow until autumn are 
budded late. The conditions for success are : 

(1) The stock and scion must be perfectly healthy and free from in- 
sects. If either of them are weak or sickly unsatisfactory results 
may be expected. To this end everything necessary should be 
done to keep off insects and diseases. 

(2) The buds should be well developed iu the axils of the leaves on the 
young shoots from which the buds are to be taken. It seldom happens 
that they are in this condition until the bud at the end is formed, 
but sometimes the buds in the center of the twigs will be large 
enough to grow, while those at the base and at the extreme tip are 
still quite small. In Fig. 80 the buds shown between B and G are 
supposed to be mature enough for budding, while those at the base 
are too small, and those at the tip, beyond the cross-line, are too 
soft. If the buds are thought to be too immature they may readily 
be developed by pinching off the tips of the twigs. In ten or 
twelve days after such pinching, of even a very soft shoot, its buds 
will be fit for working. 

(3) The bark must separate easily from the toood on the stocks to 
be budded. This will take place only when they are growing 
rapidly. 

(4) A sharp, t?dn k7iife is absolutely necessary. 

(5) The work must be done rapidly, and the buds firmly and 
evenly tied into place. No wax is needed. 



110 



BUDDING AND GRJlFTING. 




Necessary Implements.— A common shoe-knife with the 
corners rounded off, as shown in Fig. 81, makes a very cheap 
and yet a most excellent budding knife. There are many specially 

designed forms of 
knives for this pur- 
pose, and most of 
them have an ivory 
FIG. Sl.-Badding Knife. Poi^^ or blade in the 

base of the handle 
for lifting the bark, but the rounded corner of the back of the shoe- 
knife is just as good as the best ivory blade for raising the bark, 
and a shoe-knife costs not one-fourth as much as an ordinary bud- 
ding knife, and generally holds an edge better. 

Besides a shoe-knife, tying material is necessary. For this 
purpose basswood bark is perhaps the best, since it is but little 
affected by moisture, and if put on wet remains tight and close. 
But corn husks, cotton warp or woolen yarn answers very] well, 
and a tying material called rhaphe is largely used for this purpose, 
but it should be put on dry, while basswood bark should be used 
wet. 

Basswood Tying Material is prepared by soaking sections 
of the bark in water until the inner layers separate easily. The 
bark peels from the trees readily in June and July, and it requires 
about three weeks of soaking in stagnant water to get the fiber in- 
to the right condition. After the layers readily separate the bark 
should be stripped into pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide. 
If hard and stiff it may be softened by rubbing or pounding it. 

The Process of Budding will be found illustrated in Fig- 
ures 82, 83, 84, 85 and 86, which show the successive stages in shield 
budding, which is the form generally used in this country. When 
everything is ready for the work prepare a lot of bud-sticks, as 
shown in Fig. 80, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the 
leaf stalks. These sticks should be carefullj'- protected from wilt- 
ing, and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in 
moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to store them after 
they are cut they should be kept in a cool, moist place in mors or 
sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often kept for a 
week before using, but should be used as soon as may be after they 
are cut. 

To Insert the Bud a smooth place should be selected (on 
small stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and 
Dn the north side if practicable, since buds are less liable to be in- 
jured by freezing on that side than on any other. A cross-cut should 
be made at this point, and from it a cut about \}4 inches long, 
as shown in Fig. 82; at the same time the bark should be raised, as 
shown in Fig. 85. A bud-stick is then taken and a bud cut off with 
:,he bark and a thin piece of wood (Fig, 86}^) extending about one- 
Qalf inch above and below the bud, as shown in Fig. 83. The lower 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



Ill 




Fk;. 82. 



Fig. 83. 



Fig. 84. 



Fig. 85. 



Fig. 86. 



Fig 9:2 —The way Ihe cvH avp, rnadf in ihe stock.. FiG. ^Z.—The bud when 
otroff: see from vnder side. Ftg. U-The bark raised for themserfion 
ofthehud. Fig. 8b.— The bud inserted. Fig. m.— The bud tied in; 




Fig 861/2 —Showing the toay in tvhieh the bud is cut off and its relative size 
The .-.nshaded 'pa^t around the bvd rejyresents the piece oj bark taken off 
lo'.th ihe bud. 



112 BUDDING AND GKAFTIMG. 

point Of the bud (by which is meant the bark and wood cut off as 
well as the bud) is now inserted under the bark at the cross-cut, 
and is gently pushed down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If 
the bark of the stock will not raise when the bud is thus pushed 
down the stock is not in the best condition for budding, and it will 
be necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade, or 
with the ivory blade previously referred to, in order to let the bud 
come into its place. The sides of the bud should come under the 
bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit quite all the 
bud, any small part that may project above the cross-cut should be 
cut off by again drawing the knife through the cross-cut. The bud 
must now be securely and firmly tied in place, taking care to draw 
it down evenly and firmly and to cover all the wounds with the 
tying material (Fig. 86), but not to draw the string over the bud 
itself. In less severe sections the ties do not need such careful 
attention as here in the northwestern states, where it is im- 
portant to tie very carefully. After the bud is tied the bands 
should be watched so that when the growth of the stock becomes 
so great that the bands are too tight for it (which is generally in 
about a week) they should be loosened, and when the bud is well 
united the band should be cut off altogether. The buds will gener- 
ally unite in about two weeks, but sometimes they will require a 
longer time, and it is often desirable to leave the ties on for some 
little time after this period. It is a bad practice to neglect the 
bands and allow them to severely cut the stock. 

The inserted buds should not start at all until the following 
spring. If they start into growth the season they are inserted they 
are almost certain to be killed the following winter. If the bark of 
the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains fresh and the bud falls 
off the work is entirely lost, though the stocks that have missed 
one vear may be budded the next, and even while loosening the 
bands it may not be too late to again bud those that have failed. 
To make the work more certain two buds are often inserted in each 
stock, although only one is allowed to grow. 

In the spring the inserted bud will resemble Pig. 88. Just as 
the buds commence to swell the budded stocks should be cut off at 
least one inch above the inserted bud, and sometimes seven or eight 
inches of the old stck is left above the bud to serve as a stake to 
support the shoot starting from the bud (Fig. 87). All the shoots 
that come from the stock should be rubbed off so that all its 
strength shall go into the inserted bud (Fig. ST). 

Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just above 
the bud as shown by the line at B in Fig. 87. The growing shoot 
should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a low one, so as to 
make a straight tree. If the root is strong the bud will make a 
growth of from two to four feet the first year. Some kinds of trees 
readily take on an upright form, while others naturally grow very 
crooked and need special care to induce them to grow straight. 



BUDDll^G AND GRAFTING. 



113 



On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the earth 
up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be done when 
the buds are more than two or three inches from the ground. If 
the buds are too high up to allow of this earthing up from the 
ground, especially in the case of somewhat tender kinds, some 
growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax around the bud. 
taking care not to cover the tip of the bud more than a very little. 
This covering is a protection against ice forming behind the bud 
and from sudden freezing and thawing in winter. However, with 
our hardy trees this precaution is not necessary. 





Fig. 87. 



Fig. 88. 



Fig. 89. 



Fig. S7— T/iesIioot starting from the hud tied to a portion of the stock, 
B—A. 'J he Line B iiuHcates where the stock fhoiUd be cut off late in the 
season Fig. S^.— A plum, bud in the spring of 1893 before growth com- 
menced. Fig, m.~The way in which a bud should be cut if the baj^k is to 
be taken out. A form not used much in this country. 

June-Budding.— Many eastern nurserymen offer what they 
call June-budded trees, at low prices. They are small trees that 
can be easily sent by mail, and are made by an operation similar to 
common budding, as described herewith, except that the work is 
done in June, and the inserted buds are forced into growth as soon 
as they adhere to the stock by cutting off the latter. They make 
only a small growth the season they are budded. The buds for this 



114 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



purpose may be hastened in maturing by pinching in the ends of 
the shoots to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes noth- 
ing is gained by budding in June, for a plant budded in August 
will make as large, if not a larger, growth by the end of the follow- 
ing year than a June- budded tree of the same age will make in its 
two years of growth, and will make a straighter tree. 

The bark is removed from the bud after it is cut ofE by some 
budders, but in general practice in this country it is left on. How- 
ever, care should be used not to cut the bud very thick, or the large 
amount of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly 
and evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud the 
latter is cut off in a little different way from the method des- 
cribed, and the way this is done is illustrated by Fig. 89. The cuts 
A and B are made in order and by a dexterous twist the bud and 
bark removed. It is then inserted as previously described. 

Other Forms of Budding are used occasionally, but in all 
of them the same general laws, as laid down for shield budding, 
are necessary for success. Figure 90 shows what is called flute 

budding, to perform which 

the bark of the stock is cut 

out to exactly fit the bark 

of the bud to be inserted. 

Figure 91 shows a form of 

budding wherein a circle 

of bark is taken out of the 

bud-stick and inserted into 

a stock or branch of about 

the same size. These are 

unusual forms and only 

used for some special pur- 
pose. In budding on the 

branches of trees it is gen- 
erally best to insert the 

bud on the upper side, but 

the place for its insertion 
should be governed by the form of the tree, 
better than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps 
worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If th© 
buds and stocks are 
perfectly hardy, as for 
instance when our na- 
tive plum seedlings are 
budded with similar 
kinds of improved qual- 
ity, as with the DeSoto 
plum, then the tree re- 
sulting is as good as if 

root-grafted. But if p,^. j,._^^ ,^^,.^. i^,,,,^,^ f,,,,, „,„/,;,, 
the hardy kinds of ap- ground on smaU stocks. 




Fig. 90. 
Mute Budding 




Fig. 91. 
JRing Budding. 

Budded trees are no 




BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 115 

pie are budded on ordinary seedling, which are mostly not hardy, 
then there is a part of the tender seedling which is above ground 
and is liable to be killed out by cold. In this case the resulting 
tree would be much improved if the seedling root had been grafted 
below ground instead of being budded above, so as to have the ben- 
efit of the protection the ground afforded. On the other hand 
where hardy trees are budded on the branches to change the bear- 
ing the work is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish, then, to 
pay more money for a budded than a grafted tree. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



GRAFTING. 



jrfgRAPTING is distinguished from budding by being performed 
^cB' at a season of the year, generally in the spring, when vegeta- 
tion is dormant — at least when the plant operated upon is not 
in full leaf; but there are many exceptions to such a definition, 
and it might be better to include the two subjects of budding and 
grafting under the general head of graftage, as they are closely 
related. It is the object of this chapter to discuss some of the 
methods of grafting as used in the propagation of fruits. 

liimits of Grafting.— It is quite common to hear very sur- 
prising stories about grafting. Quite lately a prominent grape 
grower referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red 
maple tree. Even Pliny says: "Some apples are so red that they 
resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted on a mul- 
berry stock." But grafting or budding is never successful unless 
the graft and stock are nearly allied, and the closer the relation- 
ship between them the more certain the success. Snidley says : 
"Varieties of the same species unite most freely ; then species of the 
same genus, then genera of the same natural order, beyond which 
the power does not extend." For instance: pears work freely on 
pears ; very well on quinces and mountain ash ; less successfully 
on apples or thorns, and not at all upon plums and cherries ; while 
the lilac will take on the ash, because of the near relationship be- 
tween the two. But there are many exceptions to any rule that 
could be laid down concerning this matter. Some plants are in- 
creased most readily by budding, while others graft more easily 
than they are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded, 
but grafting them is a much more uncertain operation. 

Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted upon, 
whether large or small. 

Scion is the term used to express the part inserted, of what- 
ever size or form it may consist. These should be of the new, well 
ripened growth of the season. If scions are to be used in the 
spring they should always be cut late in the fall, as they are liable 
to be injured by the winter. However, spring cut scions may 
116 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



117 



often be used successfully, but it is not safe to trust to them, espe- 
cially if when cut open the heart wood appears dark colored. 
Scions should not be cut when frozen. They should be stored in 
moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar, or buried in the ground out- 
doors during winter. Cherry scions are most safely carried 
through the winter when packed in moist leaves. If packed in 
sand or sawdust they sometimes become water-soaked. 

The Principles which under ie grafting are the same as in 
budding, i. e., the scion and stock must be closely related; the 
work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of both 
scion and stock come closely in contact ; and at a season of the 
year, and under such circumstances, that they may unite at once, 
or as soon as growth starts. The success of the operation largely 
depends (1) on having the stock and scion perfectly healthy; (2) in 
selecting the proper season, which varies somewhat with different 
plants ; (3) in getting a perfect union of the inner barks of scion 
and stock at least on one side; (4) in making all the cuts with a 
sharp knife, that the parts in contact may have a smooth surface ; 
(5) in doing the work rapidly, so that the surface may not be 
exposed. 

Grafting Wax is generally used for covering the wounds 
made in grafting. A gord grafting wax is one that will not 
become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run down the stock, 
or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. A very reliable 
grafting wax is made by melting together: resin four (4) parts, by 
weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one (1) part. When well 
melted pour into a pail of cold water, grease the hands slightly and 
pull the wax until it is about the color of pulled molasses candy. 
Make into balls and store for use. This wax should be warmed 
when applied. If it is too hard more tallow and less resin may be 
used. Some propagators use linseed oil instead of tallo-v. 

Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by grafting, 
and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if pioperly 
applied. For this purpose some very tenacious clay should be used, 
and it is thought to be improved when mixed with about one-third 
fresh cow dung and a little plasterers' hair. The whole mass 
should be thoroughly worked over before using. 

Cleft Grafting is a very common form of grafting, and is 
mere universally known and used than any other. It is commonly 
periormed to change the bearing of apple, plum and various other 
trees and plants. It is generally the a, 

most practical method to use on 
branches two or three inches in 
diameter, but it also works well on 
quite small stocks. 

The tools used are a sharp, fine ^^^ qs.— Grafting chisel. 

saw and a grafting chisel, a good 

pattern for which is shown in Pig. 93 where a represents blade fnr 
splitting the stick ; b, the wedge-shape end for holding the cleft 



^ UMlMil , 



118 



BUDDI^TG AND GRAFTING. 




Fig. 9i.— Stock cut off and split and 
cleft held open with wedge-shaped 
etid of grafting chisel. 



open ; ana c, a hook by which the tool may be hung on some con- 
venient branch. 

Cleft grafting is performed as follows : The place selected for 

the insertion of the scion should be where the grain of wood is 

straight. The stock is then cut ol. 

"square" off with a sharp saw 

and is split through its center, 

with the grafting chisel, to a 

depth sufficient to allow the scion 

to be put in place. The cleft is 

held open by the chisel (Fig. 94) 

until the scion (Fig. 95) is cut 

and inserted, when the wedge is 

withdrawn, allowing the stock to 

close on the scion and so hold it 

in place. If the stock does not 

spring back so as to hold the scion firmly it should be 
tightly drawn together with a string. The numbers 
of scions inserted will depend on the size of the stock. 
If the stock is not over three-quarters of an inch in 
diameter one scion is enough to insert, but on larger 
stocks two may be put in. All the cut surfaces, in- 
cluding the ends of the scions, should now be covered 
with wax, as shown in Fig. 99. 

The Scion to be inserted in cleft grafting should 
be cut wedge-shaped lengthwise, as shown in Fig. 95, 
and its cross-section should resemble Fig. 96, in which 
a shows the outer bark and b the inner. Figure 97 
represents a cross-section through a newly made 
graft, showing cleft in the stock and two scions in 
place (note how the edges of the wood come together) , 
Figure 98 represents the scion and graft as seen in 
perspective. Figure 99 shows the appearance of the 
graft when completed and 
covered with wax. 

Whip Grafting is illus- 
trated in Fig. 100, in which A 
represents the stock with a 
slit at a ; ^ the scion with a 
slit at 6 ; C the scion and stock 
put together. When finished 
all the cut surfaces should be 
covered with grafting wax, as 
shown in Fig. 99. In this 
form of grafting it is seldom 

that the inner barks come together on more than one side of scion 

and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by one 

accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems under 

three quarters of an inch In diameter, but for stocks coming within 



Fig. a") 
Showing the 
scion cut 
for inser- 
tion. 




Fig. 96. — Cross-section 
of iredge-shaped end of 
scion. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



119 




this limit it is very convenient. It is much used by nurserymen in 
root-grafting apple, pear and plum seedlings. It is done to a large 
extent during the winter months, when but very little can be 
accomplished out of doors. It is performed as follows : 

Root-Grafting.— Seedlings which are dug in autumn and 

packed in moss or saw- 
dust in a cold cellar, 
are taken as needed to 
a warm room and the 
scions grafted upon 
them just below the col- 
lar, i. e., the place 
where root and top are 
■joined. The kind of 
graft made is illustrat- 
ed in Fig. 101, which 
shows the successive 
stages of the work. A 
shows a seedling apple 
root with top removed, 
which is to be cut off 
and grafted at the cross 
YiG.Q'i.—Vross-section through a graft showing^^^^] ^ shows scion; C 
cleft and scion in place. scion and stock pre- 

pared for being united, but with the cut held open. This cut is 
made by the knife-blade, and no wood is removed from it. J), the 
same united. U, the union wrapped with a strip of paper or cloth 
which has previously been covered with 
grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string 
for this covering. The grafts should be 
about eight inches long. When completed 
they should be tied in bundles and put 
away, packed very firmly in sand or light 
soil, in a cold cellar. Early in the spring 
they should be planted in the nursery, 
about six inches apart, in rows three feet 
apart, setting all but the upper bud of the 
scion below the surface of the ground. It 
is important to plant the scion deep so as 
to encourage it to throw out roots, as the 
trees are then more hardy than when they ^^^ 
depend entirely on the seedling root for 
support. Great care should be taken to 
have the soil very firm and solid around the base of the root and at 
the union. This may be secured in several ways. Some nursery- 
men attain this end by the use of a large dibber, having a guard on 
the side to prevent its going too deep. With this a hole is made 
sufficiently wide and deep to permit the insertion of the graft 




-Perspective 
vietv of scion and com- 
pleted graft. 



120 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



easily so tnat not more than one or two buds project above the 
ground. To do this work most expeditiously the grafts should all 
be of the same length and free from side branches. Two persons 
should work together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who 
carries the grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the 
boy puts in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole 
by the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft, 
and pressing towards the graft packs the soil firmly around it. 
After each row is finished in this way the man should turn back on 
the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the ball of 
the foot. 




Fig. 99. — Graft covered wi'h 
wax. AA, scions: B, wax. 



A. stock; B, scion; C, scion 
and stock united. 



Another method of planting root grafts which is as applicable 
for planting cuttings on a small scale is as follows. It is not a fast 
method, but a very excellent one for a few grafts : The thoroughly 
plowed land is smoothed off, a line stretched and walked where the 
row is to come and then thrown to one side. "With a spade throw 
out a furrow along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth. 
Against this place the grafts, and then with a hoe turned bottom 
up push a little earth against the lower part of the root of each 
graft, and afterwards draw three inches of soil into the furrow 



BUILDING AND GRAFTING. 



121 



around the grafts and then press firmly agajast each graft with 
the ball of the foot. Fill the trench full and repeat the footing 
process again. A more expeditious way is to plow out a furrow 
instead of making it with a spade, and then fill the trench v ith a 
plow. In this way the work may be successfully done if the soil is 
not dry and the season is favorable. But it pays well to do good 
work, and where one has only a few hundred or a thousand grafts 
to plant the spade method is most certain. In planting in a dry 
time the great key to success is to have the land firm and solid 

around the root and the 
union so that there will 
be no air space. This 
is very important. In 
two or three years from 
the root-graft the trees 
will be large enough to 
be transplanted to the 
orchard. The kind of 
roots which they will 
bear at this time is 
well illustrated in Fig. 
50. In this figure A 
shows a tree which has 
been ruined by improp- 
er digging; ^ and C 
trees that have rooted 
from the scion and 
have lost the original 
root stocks. 

Side Grafting.— 
Side grafting is illus- 
trated in Fig. 102, in 
which a represents the 
scion, 5 shows the stock 
prepared for the scion, 
c the graft made, and d 
the same covered with 
wax. This form of 

Fig. IM.-Boot grafting illustrated. A, stock; Shafting is especiaUy 
B, scion; _t\ scion and stock prepared; D, applicable to cherry 
gratt made; E, graft completed and tvrapped scdlings on which 
tvith waxed clot/i. . %,' u i. 

union should be made 

at the crown of the plant, which is just below the surface of the 
land. This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, 
apples, and other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree 
there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft until 
the scion starts into growth. 

Grafting Below Ground.— If grarring is done just below 
the surface of the ground the work i3 much more certain of being 




122 



BI'DDIXG AND GRAFTING. 



successful than if abo,ve the surface-, and the resulting tree will be 
hardier than if the union were above ground, since the weakest 
point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of 
course very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this 
manner. Figure 103 shows a grape root so grafted. The methods 
adapted for grafting below ground are the same as for above 
ground, only not so much wax is required. 

In grafting below ground it is important to remove the soil 
until a smooth straight part is found of sufificient length to contain 
the scion. It is impor- 
tant, also, to keep the 
wounds free from dirt, 
for however much it 
may help to have the 
whole graft covered in 
this way, any soil on 
the cut surfaces will 
prevent that desirable 
close contact of the cells 
which is necessary for 

successful work. When 

grafting is done below 

ground suckers will 

often start from the 

stock in great numbers. 

These should be all re- 
moved or the graft will 

be ruined. A little ob- 
servation soon teaches 

one to distinguish at a 

glance the sprouts from 

the stock from the 

scion. In removing 

these suckers they 

should be pulled away 

from the stock and not 

simply cut off. Only 

one shoot should be per- 
mittee to grow from 

each scion, and this 

should be the thriftiest 

and generally that 

starting lowest down. 

The lowest is saved because wherever a shoot starts there is gen- 

firally a crook formed, and if near the ground it is not unsightly. 
Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper bag that is 

sometimes drawn over and tied below the graft as soon as it is 

completed. It is well illustrated in Fig. i04. Its use is to prevent 

the shriveling of the scion due to exposure to drying winds. 




FIG 



102. — ^i(Je-gra fling as practiad on cherry 
a. scion: h.'stork; 'c. graft inaae; cl, grajt 
covered nifh /ca.v. 



It is 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



123 



especially desirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or in ex- 
posed locations. It is a very valuable adjunct to the grafting outfit 
and its use should be more general. Of course the bags should be 
removed as soon as the scions start, and the same care should be 
taken in the use of wax around the graft as if the night cap was 
not used. 

The following notes on grafting different fruits will perhaps be 
of interest : 

Grafting Apples.— Apples in the open ground should be 
grafted about the time the buds are nicely started, but the scions 
should not have started at all. It is the easiest of all the fruits to 
graft, and almost any method may be used successfully on it. The 
scions should be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting tlie Plum.— The plum is most successfully grafted 
very early in the spring— even before the frost is out of the ground 

or a bud has commenced to 
swell. The work when 
done at this time is gener- 
ally successful, though not 
as certain as the apple. It 
is said that the plum may 
be grafted very successful- 
ly later in the spring, even 
after the buds have com- 
menced to swell, providing 
the buds on the scion are 
started as much as those 
on the stock at the time 
the work is performed. 

The plum may be quite 
successfully root-grafted 
in the house in winter, as 
recommended for the apple 
and treated the same way, 
but it generally takes a 
year longer to get the tree 
formed, since in this case the growth from the scion is quite 
slow the first t-vo years. 

On account of the slow growth trees grown in this way are 
often crooked and unpromising. This defect, however, may be 
remedied by cutting away in the early spring of the second year 
all the growth from the scion except one strong bud at its base. If 
this work is done very early in the spring it will result in throwing 
the whole strength of the root into a single bud and the forming of 
a stem that is straight in place of the former crooked one. A much 
better and more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the 
stocks in the nursery one year before they are intended to be 
grafted, and then graft them below the surface of the ground very 
early in the spring. For this purpose cleit or whip-grafting should 




Fig. 103.— Grape vine t^oof. grafted. 



124 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 



be used. When the work is done in this way the resu t is a verjr 
strong growth from the scion. If the suckers are pinched off and 
the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the result, on 
rich land and in the case of strong, healthy stocks, will be to give 
a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Sometimes the 
growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the branches are 
liable to be broken off in the wind, and should be tied to stakes 
with soft string. The scions should be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting the Cherry.— The cherry may be root-grafted in- 
doors in the winter. When this is done what is called side-grafting 
is employed, and it gives results far ahead of any other method. 
But with the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this 
fruit makes it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be 
achieved by side-grafting them at ihe crown of the plant on stocks 
well established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended 
for propagating the plum. In regard to this 
fruit it is also reported that, as in the case of 
the plum, the work may be done after the 
stocks start into growth a little, providing the 
scions are as far advanced. The scions should 
be from four to six inches long. 

Grafting the Grape is done most safely 
very early in the spring, even before a sign of 
growth appears, but it may also be grafted 
about the time the first leaves are nicely ex- 
panded, if the scions are kept dormant until 
that time. The work should always be done 
below the surface of the ground. Any form 
of graft may be used, but that most commonly 
used is cleft-grafting, as shown In Fig. 103. 
Iq making a cleft-graft upon a grape root it is 
often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock 
with a fine saw on account of the crooked, 
twisted grain of the wrod, which does not 
allow it to split straight. Some growers do 
not use any wax around the graft but simply 
cover it with a mound of well packed earth up 
to the upper bud of the scion. In grafting 
after \he leaves are expanded some propaga- Fig. 104. -- Grafi?d 
tors prefer to use side-grafting, and do not i^^(/m wiih^ 9foft 
cut the vine severely until it is believed the 
scion has grown fast to the stock, when the 
vine Is cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this 
purpose. The scions should be about six or eight inches long. 

To change the varieties in a vineyard it is sometimes practiced 
1 o graft on a cane from the old vine. In this case a cane from the 
old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vine is 
grafted with a scion which should be at least two feet long. When 
grafted the graft, including the cane and scion, should be buried 




covered ivith night 
cap. 



BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 125 

six inches deep, the end bud of the scion being brought above 
ground where the new vine is desired. The following year the old 
vine may be largely cut away and the growth from the scion will 
take its place. This method is not so neat as when the vine is cut 
off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, but it has the 
merit of being very much more certain of not necessitating the 
destruction of the old vine until a new one is established. 

Grafting by Approach or Inarching is a form of grafting 
in which the branches of growing plants are brought together. It 
is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to 
grow two branches or stems together. It is much used in propa- 
gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. It 
may be done at any time during the growing season and on any 
flexible growth of whatever age. It is performed by shaving out a 
piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the scion, of the 
same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each may be 
together. If this is done even so late as the middle of July they 
will grow firmly together before winter. It is customary when 
this method is to be used for propagation to either plant a lot of 
small plants around the one from which the scions are to come, or 
to grow them in pots and set pots and plants near by. When the 
branches have united they are permitted to grow until autumn, 
when the scions are cut off just below the union and the plants 
with the scions on them are heeled in for winter or protected in 
some other way. No wax is needed as the union is very sure if the - 
parts are closely tied together. This is a very safe and sure 
method and is easily performed, even by the novice. 



APPENDIX. 

BY PROFESSOR J. L. BUDD. 

^HE following list of apples is by Professor J. L. Budd, of 
/^ the Iowa Agricultural College, whose efforts in connection 
with the introduction of hardy fruits for the Northwestern 
States hare giren him a national reputation. This list comprises 
the varieties which he considers the hardiest and best adapted to 
the extreme north. Many of these kinds cannot be obtained of the 
general nurserjinen, but the list is of great value in showing the 
direction which progressive horticulture is taking in the extreme 
north and as a guide for future planting. It is especially valuable 
for parties living in sections corresponding to Northern Iowa, and 
perhaps Southern Minnesota. 



-A. P* P> 3Li B S . 

SUMMER VARIETIES. 

Blushed Calville. (22 M; This at the West will prove 
more valuable than YeUow Transparent. The tree is much har- 
dier, more nearly free from blight, and the fruit is about as early, 
as large in size, is handsomely blushed, and it is less perishable 
and better in quality. 

Breskovka. (152 M.) Some later than the above and a very 
regular and full bearer. Fruit in size, color and shape much like 
Grimes Golden. Quality best for kitchen use and very good for 
dessert. 

Plodovitka. Very early and profitable at the North. 

Anisette. (No. ISo.) Of the Duchess family and hardier at 
the North. An annual and full bearer of fruit like Duchess, but 
finer in grain, less acid and earlier. Will prove valuable over a 
large part of the United States. 

Revel Pear. (No. 379.) A heavy bearer of fair sized hand- 
<^ome fruit for home use or market. 

BoROViXKA. (No. 245.) Of the Duchess family. Fruit almost 
identical with Duchess, but a better keeper. 
126 



APPENDIX. 127 

LuBSK Queen. (No. 444.) As hardy as Duchess and noted 
for heavy and continuous bearing. Fruit large, smooth, with 
varied shades of red and pink. Flesh fine grained, sub-acid and 
very good for so large a fruit. This is placed with the summer 
apples because it colors up early and ships well at an early date, 
but it keeps well at the fruit' stands and can be easily kept through 
September. 

AUTUMN APPLES. 

Rosy Repka. (No. 200.) An iron-clad tree everywhere. Fruit 
large, even sized, handsomely colored, sub-acid, and excellent in 
quality. Will be a popular market apple. Season autumn, or 
early winter on the north limit of its possible growth. 

Hibernal. (No. 378.) Hardier than Duchess and fuiiy equal 
in bearing and perfection of tree on varied soils. Fruit large, even 
sized, handsomely colored and of best quality for culinary use. 
This will prove a popular market apple for kitchen use during the 
fall and early winter. It has some value for dessert use when 
fully matured and the skin, which has a crab-like flavor, is re- 
moved. 

Kbiv Reinette. (No. 447.) Hardier than Duchess at the 
North. Fruit large, smooth, yellow, with crimson splashes, and a 
rich bloom. Valuable for all uses. Season, late fall and early 
winter. 

Gipsy Girl. (56 Vor.) A fine tree in nursery and orchard. 
Fruit large, smooth and remarkably handsome. A famous train- 
boy apple in East Europe. Will be prized over a large part of the 
country. Season, late fall. 

Mallbtt. (No. 980.) As imported by the Department of Ag- 
riculture this has the name of White Pelikanoff . The fruit is not 
white, but is much like Wealthy in size, shape, color and quality. 
Its true name is Mallett. Though classed with the fall apples it is 
a remarkable keeper after it becomes tender enough for dessert 
use. As grown at the North, we have eaten the fruit in fine condi- 
tion in March. 

L.ARGE Anis. (No. 413 Department ) This was imported by 
the Department of Agriculture under the name of Cross apple. It 
is an iron-clad tree in all respects, a heavy and continuous bearer, 
and a valuable late fall and early winter apple of good size and ex- 
cellent quality. 

Antomovka. This is an iron-clad tree and an early and con- 
tinuous bearer of large yellow apples that will take well in market 
and prove valuable for home use. Its fault is tendency to blight 
on black soils and in sheltered localities, but it is not more subject 
to blight than the Yellow Transparent. Season, late fall and early 
winter. 

Apobt Orient. This is one of the most valuable varieties of 
the Alexander family. Fruit very large, gorgeously colored, and 
of excellent quality for an apple of its size. 



128 APPENDIX. 

Golden Reinette. This has not proven ta-ue to name as re- 
ceived from the Bogdaaofl estates, in Russia. It is a member of 
the Anis family, of fine size and excellent quality. Season, late 
fall, and early winter North. 

PosABTS Nalivia, Of the Antonovka family and less subject 
to blight and a better keeper. Season here, December, and much 
later on its north limit of growth. Fruit much like the Antonovka, 
but it averages larger in size and is better in quality. 

KuKSK Reinette. (20 M ) Of the Longfield family, with the 
same habit of early and continuous bearing. Fruit more conical 
than LK)ngfield, of same color, flesh fine grained, tender and sweet. 
This promises to be very valuable over a large part of the United 
States. 

Silken Leap. (No. 327.) This is one of the hardiest of the 
Hibernal family. A great and continuous bearer of smooth, hand- 
some apples, especially valuable for culinary use. Season, late fall, 
and mid- winter at the North, 

Pointed Pipka. (No. 361.) A true iron-clad and perfect tree 
on varied soils. Fruit large, conical, coming to a point at the nar- 
row basin, yellow, covered with stripes and splashes of crimson, 
with much bloom. Flesh fine grained, sub-acid and very good. 
Season here, late fall, and late winter on its north limit of growth. 

Bergamot. (No. 424.) This is of the Antonovka family and is 
classed as a winter apple by J. B. Mitchell, of Cresco, and other 
northern growers. The fruit is later with us than Antonovka or 
Posarts Nalivia, but does not keep later than December with ordi- 
nary care. A remarkable bearer and perfect tree in every way. 
Fruit large, even in size, bright yellow and good in quality for any 
use. 

WINTER APPLES. 

Aport Yoronesh, We introduced the Aport of Central Rus- 
sia from several points. It has been sent out as Aport, 23 M., 
4 Vor., and 12 Orel. We have kept these importations separate, 
but they all appear to be identical. Fruit large, smooth, yellow, 
with much red in broken stripes and splashes. Flesh yellowish 
white, slightly coarse, sub-acid, aromatic, quality very good for any 
use. Mid-winter here, and will keep through winter at the North. 

Sklanka Bogdanoff. This is an iron-clad tree on dry sojJs, 
and an early and continuous bearer. Fruit medium in size, yellow, 
conical, quality better than Baldwin. Season mid-winter, and 
very late on its north limit of growth. 

Volga Cross. A perfect tree on varied soils. Fruit of size of 
Rhode Island Greening and a much better keeper. Quality better 
than Baldwin. 

Cross. (15 M. and No. 413.) This is the true Cross apple of 
Central Russia. In close sheltered positions on black soils, it is 
subject to blight, but like the Yellow Transparent, it blights only 
on points of growth. On dry soils and in airy positions it will 



APPENDIX. 129 

prove very valuable, as it is a heavy and continuous bearer. Fruit 
medium to large, oblate, ribbed, yellow, with red and crimson 
stripes. Flesh firm, sub-acid, very good. Season here, mid-winter, 
and it will keep as grown in North Iowa until spring. 

Marmalade. (88 Vor.) A perfect tree on varied soils. Fruit 
large, yellow, blushed on sunny side. It is especially valuable for 
jellies, marmalades and other culinary uses requiring much grape 
sugar. Season here, mid- winter. 

OsTRAKOFF. (4 M.) This is hardier than Duchess and less 
subject to blight. An early, heavy and continuous bearer, and 
needs manuring to keep up size of fruit after it has borne heavy 
crops. Fruit medium to large, even in size, yellow. Flesh firm, 
sub-acid and fine in quality. Mid-winter here, and will keep until 
May on its north limit of growth. 

Lbdenets. (30 M.) An iron-clad tree, succeeding best on dry 
soils without shelter at the north and west. A heavy and continu- 
ous bearer. Fruit medium to large, oblate, yellow, with blush on 
sunny side. Flesh fine grained, sub-acid, very good. Season, mid- 
winter here, and very late on its north limit of growth. 

Lead. (3 M.) This also does best on dry soils without shelter. 
JPruit large, oblate, conical, yellow, with red on sunny side, acid 
and most valuable for cooking, but when ripe it is better for des- 
sert use than Willow or Ben Davis. Mid-winter here, and much 
later north. 

RoTAx Table. (5 M.) Also needs dry soil and open exposure. 
An early and continuous bearer. Fruit medium to large, conical, 
ribbed, yellow, with red on sunny side. Flesh white, fine grained, 
sub-acid, nearly best in quality. Mid-winter here, and late winter 
at the North. 

Kegel. (No. 169.) This was received by the College from Dr. 
Regel, of St. Petersburg, under the name of Green Sweet. But a 
mistake was evidently made as this is not sweet, has a fine color 
and is a late keeping winter apple. It much resembles Repka 
Malenka in shape and color, but it is larger in size and of better 
quality. In season and fiavor it is much like Rawle's Janet. 

RoMNA. (No. 599 and 11 M.) This succeeds best on dry soil 
where its roots run very deep. Fruit medium in size, conical, 
smooth, handsomely colored. Flesh white, firm, quite acid and 
best for cooking, but when matured it is much better for dessert 
use than Willow or Missouri Pippin or other coarse sorts found in 
our markets. Season, mid-winter here, and late winter north of 
43d parallel. 

SwiNsovKA. (No. 377.) The Department No. 277 is Isbeled 
Vargul, but is not true to name. The Swinsovka is of the Lead 
apple family, but is not identical with 3 M. Fruit medium to large, 
green, with yellow on sunny side. Flesh fine grained, firm, sub- 
acid, Juicy and excellent for dessert use. Season, mid-winter at 
Ames, and late winter north. 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Appendix 126, 129 

APPIiES 72, 94 

Crab apples 94 

Cultivation - 78 

Depth to plant 77 

Diseases 85 

Blight 85 

Scab 85 

Distance apart to plant 78 

Forming the tree 78 

Injured trees 80 

Insects 86,91 

Climbing cut-worm 89 

Codling moth 89 

Curculio 90 

Flat headed apple tree 

borer 86 

Fall web worm 90 

Leaf lice 9i 

New York weevil 87 

Tent caterpillar 87 

Land best adapted to apples 74 
Location of apple orchard . . 73 
Location especially adapted 

to orcharding 73 

Manuring 81 

Marketing 84 

Mulching 81 

Pickine 84 

Planting 76 

Protecting trunks by boxing 83 

Pruning 79 

Root-grafted trees < 6 

Russian apples 92 

Seedlings 74 

Some important things to 

remember 85 

Sunscald 81 

Supplementary list of apples 93 

Time to plant 76 

Top- working 84 

Tr- es 74 

Varieties 91 

Late summer and early 

autumn 92 

Summer 92 

Wind-breaks 74 

Worst location for an or- 
chard 73 

Blackberries 25, 20 

Dewberries 26 

Species 25 

Varieties 26 

Bordeaux M ixture 12 

BUDDING 108, 115 

Bud-Stick 108 

June-budding... 113 

Necessary implements 110 

Other forms of 114 

Process of HO 

Time for 109 

BUEFALOBBRRY 68, 69 

Description 68 

Propagation 69 



Page. 

Cherry 104, 107 

Cultivation 106 

Diseases 106 

Insects 106 

Location 104 

Planting 105 

Propagation 104 

Cuttings 105 

Suckers 1(© 

Pruning 106 

Soil 104 

Varieties 107 

Cranberry 58y 62 

About flowing 60 

Best location for beds 59 

Drainage and flowage 60 

Importance of water 60 

Picking 62 

Plants and planting 61 

Preparation of land 59 

Soil adapted to it 59 

Supplying sand 59 

Currants 27, 35 

Diseases 34 

Insects 31 

Currant worm 31 

Imported currant borer ... 33 

Lice.... 33. 

Marketing 31 

Mulching 29 

Planting 29 

Propagation 28 

By cuttings 28. 

By layers 28 

By seed 28. 

Pruning 29 

Soil 29 

Species 27 

Tree currants 30 

Varieties 34 

Winter protection 31 

Dewberries SJ6 

Diseases of the— 

Apple .85, 86 

Currants 34 

Gooseberry 54 

Grape 53, 55 

Raspberry 2^,. 23 

Strawberry 1 1, 12 

Gooseberry 3,% 37 

Mildew ^ 

Planting 36 

Propagation 36 

Pruning 36 

Species 35 

Varieties 37 

Grafting by Approach, or 
Inarching 125 

Grafting 116, 125 

Below ground 121 

Cleft-grafting 117 

Night cap 122 

Root-grafting 119 

Scion 116 



I3S 



GBAimNG — Continued. Page. 

Side-graf tine: i21 

Stock 116 

Whip-grafting 118 

Grafting Wax 117 

Grape 38, 57 

Bagging fruit 52 

Best vines.... 43 

Cultivation. 44 

Diseases 53 

Downy mildew 54 

Black rot.. 54 

Distance between plants 43 

Fungicides, use of 55 

Ammoniacal carbonate of 

copper 55 

Girdling 52 

Insects 56 

Eight spotted forester 56 

Grape-vine flea beetle 56 

Keeping fruit 52 

Iiayering 41 

Spring layers 41 

Summer layers 41 

Ijocation of vineyard 42 

Manures 51 

Planting 43 

Preventives of disease 54 

Propagation 39 

Cuttings 39 

Seed 39 

Pruning and training 44 

Pruning, easy system 49 

Pruning neglected , vines 50 

Pruning, time of 51 

Removing foliage 49 

Soil 43 

Species 38 

Thinning the fruit 51 

Training vines against build- 
ings or walls 50 

Trellis 45 

Varieties 56 

Varieties, list recommended 57 
Insecticides— 

Kerosene emulsion 91 

Paris green 90 

Tobacco water 91 

Insects Injurious to— 

Apple 86, 91 

Currant 31, 34 

Grape 56 

Raspberry 23, 24 

Strawberry 12, 13 

JUNEBERRY, DWARF 63, G5 

Cultivation 64 

Propagation 64 

Varieties 65 

Kerosene Emulsion 91 

Mulberry, Russian 70, 71 

Hardiness 70 

Its fruit 71 

Propagation 71 

Varieties 71 

Plum, The 95, 103 

Cultivation 97 

Diseases 100, 101 

Black rot, or Wart of the 

plum 100 

Diseases, other lOl 



Plum Pockets lOO 

Insects 101, 103 

Aphis, or Leaf Lice 103 

Plum Curcuiio 101 

Plum Gouger 102 

Location 97 

Marketing 98 

Mixing varieties 98 

Planting 97 

Profits of cultivation 97 

Propagation 96 

Pruning 97 

Renewing old trees 97 

Species 95 

Suckers, thrifty 96 

Varieties 99 

Raspberries 15, 25 

Convenient box holder 22 

Cultivation 18 

Diseases 22 

Anthracnose 23 

Leaf curl 22 

Red orange rust 2S 

Insects 23 

Flat-headed borer 23 

Snowy tree cricket 23 

Location 17 

Manure 18 

Mulching 20 

Planting 18 

Preparation of land 18 

Propagation 16 

Layers 17 

Root cuttings 16 

Seed 16 

Pruning and thinning 19 

Selection of plants 18 

Soil 17 

Species 15 

Support 20 

Time of planting 18 

Varieties 24 

Winter protection 21 

Strawberries 5, 14 

Avoiding frosts 9 

Bordeaux mixture 12 

Diseases 11 

Dry berries— "nubbins" 11 

How to continue in bearing . 9 

Insects 12 

Leaf roller 12 

Whitegrub 12 

Location 6 

Manures 6 

Marketing 11 

Methods of planting 7 

Hill system 7 

Matted row system 8 

Picking 11 

Preparation of land 6 

Propagation 5 

Sexuality of blossoms 10 

Shadingthebed 13 

Soil 6 

Species 5 

Time of planting 7 

Trimming and setting plants 8 

Varieties 14 

Winter protection 9 



